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Wang Z, Yan H, He F, Wang J, Zhang Y, Sun L, Hao C, Wang W. Inhibition of herpes simplex virus by wedelolactone via targeting viral envelope and cellular TBK1/IRF3 and SOCS1/STAT3 pathways. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2023; 62:107000. [PMID: 37838148 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2023.107000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Revised: 08/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/01/2023] [Indexed: 10/16/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Development of novel antiherpes simplex virus (HSV) agents with active mechanisms different from nucleoside analogues is of high importance. Herein, we investigated the anti-HSV activities and mechanisms of wedelolactone (WDL) both in vitro and in vivo. METHODS Cytopathic effect (CPE) inhibition assay, plaque assay, and western blot assay were used to evaluate the anti-HSV effects of WDL in vitro. The immunofluorescence assay, RT-PCR assay, plaque reduction assay, sandwich ELISA assay, syncytium formation assay, tanscriptome analysis and western blot assay were used to explore the anti-HSV mechanisms of WDL. The murine encephalitis and vaginal models of HSV infection were performed to evaluate the anti-HSV effects of WDL in vivo. RESULTS WDL possessed inhibitory effects against both HSV-1 and HSV-2 in different cells with low toxicity, superior to the effects of acyclovir. WDL can directly inactivate the HSV particle via destruction of viral envelope and block HSV replication process after virus adsorption, different from the mechanisms of acyclovir. WDL may influence the host genes and signaling pathways related to HSV infection and immune responses. WDL can mainly interfere with the TBK1/IRF3 and SOCS1/STAT3 pathways to reduce HSV infection and inflammatory responses. Importantly, WDL treatment markedly improved mice survival, attenuated inflammatory symptoms, and reduced the virus titres in both HSV-1 and HSV-2 infected mice. CONCLUSIONS Thus, the natural compound WDL has the potential to be developed into a novel anti-HSV agent targeting both viral envelope and cellular TBK1/IRF3 and SOCS1/STAT3 pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaoqi Wang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Ministry of Education, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, PR China
| | - Han Yan
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Ministry of Education, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, PR China
| | - Fujie He
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Ministry of Education, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, PR China
| | - Jie Wang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Ministry of Education, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, PR China
| | - Yang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Ministry of Education, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, PR China
| | - Lishan Sun
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Ministry of Education, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, PR China
| | - Cui Hao
- Medical Research Center, Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, PR China.
| | - Wei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Drugs, Ministry of Education, School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, PR China; Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts of Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, PR China.
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Suppression of JAK-STAT signaling by Epstein-Barr virus tegument protein BGLF2 through recruitment of SHP1 phosphatase and promotion of STAT2 degradation. J Virol 2021; 95:e0102721. [PMID: 34319780 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01027-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Some lytic proteins encoded by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) suppress host interferon (IFN) signaling to facilitate viral replication. In this study we sought to identify and characterize EBV proteins antagonizing IFN signaling. The induction of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) by IFN-β was effectively suppressed by EBV. A functional screen was therefore performed to identify IFN-antagonizing proteins encoded by EBV. EBV tegument protein BGLF2 was identified as a potent suppressor of JAK-STAT signaling. This activity was found to be independent of its stimulatory effect on p38 and JNK pathways. Association of BGLF2 with STAT2 resulted in more pronounced K48-linked polyubiquitination and proteasomal degradation of the latter. Mechanistically, BGLF2 promoted the recruitment of SHP1 phosphatase to STAT1 to inhibit its tyrosine phosphorylation. In addition, BGLF2 associated with cullin 1 E3 ubiquitin ligase to facilitate its recruitment to STAT2. Consequently, BGLF2 suppressed ISG induction by IFN-β. Furthermore, BGLF2 also suppressed type II and type III IFN signaling, although the suppressive effect on type II IFN response was milder. When pre-treated with IFN-β, host cells became less susceptible to primary infection of EBV. This phenotype was reversed when expression of BGLF2 was enforced. Finally, genetic disruption of BGLF2 in EBV led to more pronounced induction of ISGs. Taken together, our study unveils the roles of BGLF2 not only in the subversion of innate IFN response but also in lytic infection and reactivation of EBV. Importance Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is an oncogenic virus associated with the development of lymphoid and epithelial malignancies. EBV has to subvert interferon-mediated host antiviral response to replicate and cause diseases. It is therefore of great interest to identify and characterize interferon-antagonizing proteins produced by EBV. In this study we perform a screen to search for EBV proteins that suppress the action of interferons. We further show that BGLF2 protein of EBV is particularly strong in this suppression. This is achieved by inhibiting two key proteins STAT1 and STAT2 that mediate the antiviral activity of interferons. BGLF2 recruits a host enzyme to remove the phosphate group from STAT1 thereby inactivating its activity. BGLF2 also redirects STAT2 for degradation. A recombinant virus in which BGLF2 gene has been disrupted can activate host interferon response more robustly. Our findings reveal a novel mechanism by which EBV BGLF2 protein suppresses interferon signaling.
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Egwuagu CE, Alhakeem SA, Mbanefo EC. Uveitis: Molecular Pathogenesis and Emerging Therapies. Front Immunol 2021; 12:623725. [PMID: 33995347 PMCID: PMC8119754 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.623725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The profound impact that vision loss has on human activities and quality of life necessitates understanding the etiology of potentially blinding diseases and their clinical management. The unique anatomic features of the eye and its sequestration from peripheral immune system also provides a framework for studying other diseases in immune privileged sites and validating basic immunological principles. Thus, early studies of intraocular inflammatory diseases (uveitis) were at the forefront of research on organ transplantation. These studies laid the groundwork for foundational discoveries on how immune system distinguishes self from non-self and established current concepts of acquired immune tolerance and autoimmunity. Our charge in this review is to examine how advances in molecular cell biology and immunology over the past 3 decades have contributed to the understanding of mechanisms that underlie immunopathogenesis of uveitis. Particular emphasis is on how advances in biotechnology have been leveraged in developing biologics and cell-based immunotherapies for uveitis and other neuroinflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles E Egwuagu
- Molecular Immunology Section, Laboratory of Immunology, National Eye Institute (NEI), National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
| | - Sahar A Alhakeem
- Molecular Immunology Section, Laboratory of Immunology, National Eye Institute (NEI), National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Health Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee, WI, United States
| | - Evaristus C Mbanefo
- Molecular Immunology Section, Laboratory of Immunology, National Eye Institute (NEI), National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, United States
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Guo K, Zhang X. Cytokines that Modulate the Differentiation of Th17 Cells in Autoimmune Uveitis. J Immunol Res 2021; 2021:6693542. [PMID: 33816637 PMCID: PMC7990547 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6693542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 03/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Increasing evidence has suggested that T helper 17 (Th17) cells play a central role in the pathogenesis of ocular immune disease. The association between pathogenic Th17 cells and the development of uveitis has been confirmed in experimental and clinical studies. Several cytokines affect the initiation and stabilization of the differentiation of Th17 cells. Therefore, understanding the mechanism of related cytokines in the differentiation of Th17 cells is important for exploring the pathogenesis and the potential therapeutic targets of uveitis. This article briefly describes the structures, mechanisms, and targeted drugs of cytokines-including interleukin (IL)-6, transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), IL-1β, IL-23, IL-27, IL-35, IL-2, IL-4, IL-21, and interferon (IFN)-γ-which have an important influence on the differentiation of Th17 cells and discusses their potential as therapeutic targets for treating autoimmune uveitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kailei Guo
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Retinal Functions and Diseases, Eye Institute and School of Optometry, Tianjin Medical University Eye Hospital, Tianjin 300384, China
| | - Xiaomin Zhang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Retinal Functions and Diseases, Eye Institute and School of Optometry, Tianjin Medical University Eye Hospital, Tianjin 300384, China
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Alston CI, Dix RD. SOCS and Herpesviruses, With Emphasis on Cytomegalovirus Retinitis. Front Immunol 2019; 10:732. [PMID: 31031749 PMCID: PMC6470272 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2019.00732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 03/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Suppressor of cytokine signaling (SOCS) proteins provide selective negative feedback to prevent pathogeneses caused by overstimulation of the immune system. Of the eight known SOCS proteins, SOCS1 and SOCS3 are the best studied, and systemic deletion of either gene causes early lethality in mice. Many viruses, including herpesviruses such as herpes simplex virus and cytomegalovirus, can manipulate expression of these host proteins, with overstimulation of SOCS1 and/or SOCS3 putatively facilitating viral evasion of immune surveillance, and SOCS suppression generally exacerbating immunopathogenesis. This is particularly poignant within the eye, which contains a diverse assortment of specialized cell types working together in a tightly controlled microenvironment of immune privilege. When the immune privilege of the ocular compartment fails, inflammation causing severe immunopathogenesis and permanent, sight-threatening damage may occur, as in the case of AIDS-related human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) retinitis. Herein we review how SOCS1 and SOCS3 impact the virologic, immunologic, and/or pathologic outcomes of herpesvirus infection with particular emphasis on retinitis caused by HCMV or its mouse model experimental counterpart, murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV). The accumulated data suggests that SOCS1 and/or SOCS3 can differentially affect the severity of viral diseases in a highly cell-type-specific manner, reflecting the diversity and complexity of herpesvirus infection and the ocular compartment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine I Alston
- Department of Biology, Viral Immunology Center, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States.,Department of Ophthalmology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Richard D Dix
- Department of Biology, Viral Immunology Center, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, United States.,Department of Ophthalmology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, United States
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Mukwaya A, Jensen L, Peebo B, Lagali N. MicroRNAs in the cornea: Role and implications for treatment of corneal neovascularization. Ocul Surf 2019; 17:400-411. [PMID: 30959113 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtos.2019.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2019] [Revised: 03/25/2019] [Accepted: 04/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
With no safe and efficient approved therapy available for treating corneal neovascularization, the search for alternative and effective treatments is of great importance. Since the discovery of miRNAs as key regulators of gene expression, knowledge of their function in the eye has expanded continuously, facilitated by high throughput genomic tools such as microarrays and RNA sequencing. Recently, reports have emerged implicating miRNAs in pathological and developmental angiogenesis. This has led to the idea of targeting these regulatory molecules as a therapeutic approach for treating corneal neovascularization. With the growing volume of data generated from high throughput tools applied to study corneal neovascularization, we provide here a focused review of the known miRNAs related to corneal neovascularization, while presenting new experimental data and insights for future research and therapy development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Mukwaya
- Department of Ophthalmology, Institute for Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Linkoping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Lasse Jensen
- Department of Medical and Health Sciences, Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Beatrice Peebo
- Department of Ophthalmology, Institute for Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Linkoping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Neil Lagali
- Department of Ophthalmology, Institute for Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Linkoping University, Linköping, Sweden; Department of Ophthalmology, Sørlandet Hospital Arendal, Arendal, Norway.
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SOCS1-targeted therapy ameliorates renal and vascular oxidative stress in diabetes via STAT1 and PI3K inhibition. J Transl Med 2018; 98:1276-1290. [PMID: 29540859 DOI: 10.1038/s41374-018-0043-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2017] [Revised: 01/30/2018] [Accepted: 01/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Oxidative stress resulting from excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) or impaired antioxidant defenses is closely related to the development of diabetic vascular complications, including nephropathy and atherosclerosis. Chronic activation of Janus kinase/Signal transducer and activator of transcription (JAK/STAT) signaling pathway contributes to diabetic complications by inducing expression of genes involved in cell proliferation, fibrosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress. Suppressors of cytokine signaling (SOCS) family of endogenous JAK/STAT regulators is an attractive target for therapeutic intervention. We investigated the beneficial effect of two different SOCS1-targeted therapies (adenovirus-mediated gene transfer and kinase-inhibitory region peptidomimetic) to combat oxidative stress injury in an experimental diabetes model of concomitant renal and macrovascular disease (streptozotocin-induced diabetic apolipoprotein E-deficient mouse). Diabetes resulted in progressive alteration of redox balance in mice, as demonstrated by increased ROS levels and decreased antioxidant activity, which ultimately led to renal dysfunction and vascular injury. The molecular and pathological alterations in early diabetes were partially reversed by preventive intervention with SOCS1-targeted therapies. Importantly, SOCS1 peptidomimetic provided reno- and atheroprotection in diabetic mice even in a setting of established disease. Compared with untreated controls, kidney and aorta from SOCS1-treated mice exhibited significantly lower levels of superoxide anion, DNA oxidation marker and NADPH oxidase (Nox) subunits, along with higher expression of antioxidant enzymes. These trends correlated with a reduction in parameters of renal damage (albuminuria, creatinine and tubular injury), atherosclerosis (lesion size) and inflammation (leukocytes and chemokines). Mechanistic studies in renal, vascular and phagocytic cells exposed to cytokines and high-glucose showed that SOCS1 blocked ROS generation by inhibiting both Nox complex assembly and Nox subunit expression, an effect mediated by inactivation of JAK2, STAT1, and PI3K signaling pathways. This study provides evidence for SOCS1-targeted therapies, especially SOCS1 peptidomimetic, as an alternative antioxidant strategy to limit the progression of diabetic micro- and macrovascular complications.
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He C, Yu CR, Mattapallil MJ, Sun L, Larkin III J, Egwuagu CE. SOCS1 Mimetic Peptide Suppresses Chronic Intraocular Inflammatory Disease (Uveitis). Mediators Inflamm 2016; 2016:2939370. [PMID: 27703302 PMCID: PMC5040805 DOI: 10.1155/2016/2939370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2016] [Revised: 05/12/2016] [Accepted: 06/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Uveitis is a potentially sight-threatening disease characterized by repeated cycles of remission and recurrent inflammation. The JAK/STAT pathway regulates the differentiation of pathogenic Th1 and Th17 cells that mediate uveitis. A SOCS1 mimetic peptide (SOCS1-KIR) that inhibits JAK2/STAT1 pathways has recently been shown to suppress experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU). However, it is not clear whether SOCS1-KIR ameliorated uveitis by targeting JAK/STAT pathways of pathogenic lymphocytes or via inhibition of macrophages and antigen-presenting cells that also enter the retina during EAU. To further investigate mechanisms that mediate SOCS1-KIR effects and evaluate the efficacy of SOCS1-KIR as an investigational drug for chronic uveitis, we induced EAU in rats by adoptive transfer of uveitogenic T-cells and monitored disease progression and severity by slit-lamp microscopy, histology, and optical coherence tomography. Topical administration of SOCS1-KIR ameliorated acute and chronic posterior uveitis by inhibiting Th17 cells and the recruitment of inflammatory cells into retina while promoting expansion of IL-10-producing Tregs. We further show that SOCS1-KIR conferred protection of resident retinal cells that play critical role in vision from cytotoxic effects of inflammatory cytokines by downregulating proapoptotic genes. Thus, SOCS1-KIR suppresses uveitis and confers neuroprotective effects and might be exploited as a noninvasive treatment for chronic uveitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang He
- Molecular Immunology Section, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
- State Key Laboratory of Ophthalmology, Zhongshan Ophthalmic Center, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510060, China
| | - Cheng-Rong Yu
- Molecular Immunology Section, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Mary J. Mattapallil
- Immunoregulation Section, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Lin Sun
- Molecular Immunology Section, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Joseph Larkin III
- Department of Microbiology & Cell Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Charles E. Egwuagu
- Molecular Immunology Section, National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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Sun L, St. Leger AJ, Yu CR, He C, Mahdi RM, Chan CC, Wang H, Morse HC, Egwuagu CE. Interferon Regulator Factor 8 (IRF8) Limits Ocular Pathology during HSV-1 Infection by Restraining the Activation and Expansion of CD8+ T Cells. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0155420. [PMID: 27171004 PMCID: PMC4865128 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0155420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2015] [Accepted: 04/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Interferon Regulatory Factor-8 (IRF8) is constitutively expressed in monocytes and B cell lineages and plays important roles in immunity to pathogens and cancer. Although IRF8 expression is induced in activated T cells, the functional relevance of IRF8 in T cell-mediated immunity is not well understood. In this study, we used mice with targeted deletion of Irf8 in T-cells (IRF8KO) to investigate the role of IRF8 in T cell-mediated responses during herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) infection of the eye. In contrast to wild type mice, HSV-1-infected IRF8KO mice mounted a more robust anti-HSV-1 immune response, which included marked expansion of HSV-1-specific CD8+ T cells, increased infiltration of inflammatory cells into the cornea and trigeminal ganglia (TG) and enhanced elimination of virus within the trigeminal ganglion. However, the consequence of the enhanced immunological response was the development of ocular inflammation, limbitis, and neutrophilic infiltration into the cornea of HSV-1-infected IRF8KO mice. Surprisingly, we observed a marked increase in virus-specific memory precursor effector cells (MPEC) in IRF8KO mice, suggesting that IRF8 might play a role in regulating the differentiation of effector CD8+ T cells to the memory phenotype. Together, our data suggest that IRF8 might play a role in restraining excess lymphocyte proliferation. Thus, modulating IRF8 levels in T cells can be exploited therapeutically to prevent immune-mediated ocular pathology during autoimmune and infectious diseases of the eye.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Sun
- Molecular Immunology Section, National Eye Institute (NEI), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Anthony J. St. Leger
- Immunoregulation Section, NEI, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Cheng-Rong Yu
- Molecular Immunology Section, National Eye Institute (NEI), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Chang He
- Molecular Immunology Section, National Eye Institute (NEI), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Rashid M. Mahdi
- Molecular Immunology Section, National Eye Institute (NEI), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Chi-Chao Chan
- Immunopathology Section, NEI, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Hongsheng Wang
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), NIH, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Herbert C. Morse
- Laboratory of Immunogenetics, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), NIH, Rockville, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Charles E. Egwuagu
- Molecular Immunology Section, National Eye Institute (NEI), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Interleukin 12 (IL-12) family cytokines: Role in immune pathogenesis and treatment of CNS autoimmune disease. Cytokine 2015; 75:249-55. [PMID: 25796985 DOI: 10.1016/j.cyto.2015.01.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 138] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2014] [Revised: 01/23/2015] [Accepted: 01/23/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Cytokines play crucial roles in coordinating the activities of innate and adaptive immune systems. In response to pathogen recognition, innate immune cells secrete cytokines that inform the adaptive immune system about the nature of the pathogen and instruct naïve T cells to differentiate into the appropriate T cell subtypes required to clear the infection. These include Interleukins, Interferons and other immune-regulatory cytokines that exhibit remarkable functional redundancy and pleiotropic effects. The focus of this review, however, is on the enigmatic Interleukin 12 (IL-12) family of cytokines. This family of cytokines plays crucial roles in shaping immune responses during antigen presentation and influence cell-fate decisions of differentiating naïve T cells. They also play essential roles in regulating functions of a variety of effector cells, making IL-12 family cytokines important therapeutic targets or agents in a number of inflammatory diseases, such as the CNS autoimmune diseases, uveitis and multiple sclerosis.
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