Guggulsterone Attenuated Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammatory Responses in Mouse Inner Medullary Collecting Duct-3 Cells

Exploring the Promising Role of Guggulipid in Rheumatoid Arthritis Management: An In-depth Analysis

BACKGROUND

Guggulipid, an oleo-gum resin extracted from the bark of Commiphora wightii of the Burseraceae family, holds a significant place in Ayurvedic medicine due to its historical use in treating various disorders, including inflammation, gout, rheumatism, obesity, and lipid metabolism imbalances.

OBJECTIVE

This comprehensive review aims to elucidate the molecular targets of guggulipids and explore their cellular responses. Furthermore, it summarizes the findings from in-vitro, in-vivo, and clinical investigations related to arthritis and various inflammatory conditions.

METHODS

A comprehensive survey encompassing in-vitro, in-vivo, and clinical studies has been conducted to explore the therapeutic capacity of guggulipid in the management of rheumatoid arthritis. Various molecular pathways, such as cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), PI3-kinase/AKT, JAK/STAT, nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and NFκB signaling pathways, have been targeted to assess the antiarthritic and anti-inflammatory effects of this compound.

RESULTS

The research findings reveal that guggulipid demonstrates notable antiarthritic and anti-inflammatory effects by targeting key molecular pathways involved in inflammatory responses. These pathways include COX-2, VEGF, PI3-kinase/AKT, JAK/STAT, iNOS, and NFκB signaling pathways. in-vitro, in-vivo, and clinical studies collectively support the therapeutic potential of guggulipid in managing rheumatoid arthritis and related inflammatory conditions.

CONCLUSION

This review provides a deeper understanding of the therapeutic mechanisms and potential of guggulipid in the management of rheumatoid arthritis. The collective evidence strongly supports the promising role of guggulipid as a therapeutic agent, encouraging further research and development in guggulipid-based treatments for these conditions.

Z-Guggulsterone attenuates cognitive defects and decreases neuroinflammation in APPswe/PS1dE9 mice through inhibiting the TLR4 signaling pathway

Growing evidence indicates that inflammatory damage is implicated in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Z-Guggulsterone (Z-GS) is a natural steroid, which is extracted from Commiphora mukul and has anti-inflammatory effects in vivo and in vitro. In the present study, we investigated the disease-modifying effects of chronic Z-GS administration on the cognitive and neuropathological impairments in the transgenic mouse models of AD. We found that chronic Z-GS administration prevented learning and memory deficits in the APPswe/PS1dE9 mice. In addition, Z-GS treatment significantly decreased cerebral amyloid-β (Aβ) levels and plaque burden via inhibiting amyloid precursor protein (APP) processing by reducing beta-site APP cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) expression in the APPswe/PS1dE9 mice. We also found that Z-GS treatment markedly alleviated neuroinflammation and reduced synaptic defects in the APPswe/PS1dE9 mice. Furthermore, the activated TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathways in APPswe/PS1dE9 mice were remarkably inhibited by Z-GS treatment, which was achieved via suppressing the phosphorylation of JNK. Collectively, our data demonstrate that chronic Z-GS treatment restores cognitive defects and reverses multiple neuropathological impairments in the APPswe/PS1dE9 mice. This study provides novel insights into the neuroprotective effects and neurobiological mechanisms of Z-GS on AD, indicating that Z-GS is a promising disease-modifying agent for the treatment of AD.

Therapeutic Effect of Guggulsterone in Primary Cultured Orbital Fibroblasts Obtained From Patients with Graves' Orbitopathy

Purpose

Inflammation, hyaluronan production, and adipogenesis are the main pathological events leading to Graves' orbitopathy (GO). Guggulsterone (GS), a phytosterol found in the resin of the guggul plant, is a well-known treatment for several inflammatory disorders, such as arthritis, obesity, and hyperlipidemia. Here we investigated the effects of GS treatment on GO pathology.

Methods

Using primary cultures of orbital fibroblasts from GO patients and non-GO controls, we examined the effects of GS on hyaluronan production and the production of proinflammatory cytokines induced by interleukin (IL)-1β, using real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis, western blots, and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Further, adipogenic differentiation was evaluated by quantification of Oil Red O staining and assessment of protein levels of peroxisome proliferator activator gamma (PPARγ), CCAAT-enhancer-binding proteins (C/EBP) α and β, and sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1 (SREBP-1).

Results

Treatment with noncytotoxic concentrations of GS resulted in the dose-dependent inhibition of IL-1β-induced inflammatory cytokines, including IL-6, IL-8, MCP-1, and COX-2, at both mRNA and protein levels. The hyaluronan level was also significantly suppressed by GS. Moreover, GS significantly decreased the formation of lipid droplets and expression of PPARγ, C/EBP α/β, and SREBP-1 in a dose-dependent manner. GS pretreatment attenuated the phosphorylation of nuclear factor-kappa B induced by IL-1β.

Conclusions

Our data show significant inhibitory effects of GS on inflammation, production of hyaluronan, and adipogenesis in orbital fibroblasts. To our knowledge, this is the first in vitro preclinical evidence of the therapeutic effect of GS in GO.

Berberine ameliorates lipopolysaccharide‑induced inflammatory responses in mouse inner medullary collecting duct‑3 cells by downregulation of NF‑κB pathway

The major role of inner medullary collecting duct (IMCD) cells is to maintain water and sodium homeostasis. In addition to the major role, it also participates in the protection of renal and systemic inflammation. Although IMCD cells could take part in renal and systemic inflammation, investigations on renal inflammation in IMCD cells have rarely been reported. Although berberine (BBR) has been reported to show diverse pharmacological effects, its anti-inflammatory and protective effects on IMCD cells have not been studied. Therefore, in the present study, we examined the anti-inflammatory and protective effects of BBR in mouse IMCD-3 (mIMCD-3) cells against lipopolysaccharide (LPS). An MTT assay was carried out to investigate the toxicity of BBR on mIMCD-3 cells. Reverse transcription quantitative-PCR and western blotting were performed to analysis pro-inflammatory molecules and cytokines. Mechanisms of BBR were examined by western blotting and immunocytochemistry. According to previous studies, pro-inflammatory molecules, such as inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2, and pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor-α are increased in LPS-exposed mIMCD-3 cells. However, the production of these pro-inflammatory molecules is significantly inhibited by treatment with BBR. In addition, BBR inhibited translocation of nuclear factor (NF)-κB p65 from the cytosol to the nucleus, and degradation of inhibitory κ-Bα in LPS-exposed mIMCD-3 cells. In conclusion, BBR could inhibit renal inflammatory responses via inhibition of NF-κB signaling and ultimately contribute to amelioration of renal injury during systemic inflammation.

Inverse Regulation of Lipocalin-2/24p3 Receptor/SLC22A17 and Lipocalin-2 Expression by Tonicity, NFAT5/TonEBP and Arginine Vasopressin in Mouse Cortical Collecting Duct Cells mCCD(cl.1): Implications for Osmotolerance

The rodent collecting duct (CD) expresses a 24p3/NGAL/lipocalin-2 (LCN2) receptor (SLC22A17) apically, possibly to mediate high-affinity reabsorption of filtered proteins by endocytosis, although its functions remain uncertain. Recently, we showed that hyperosmolarity/-tonicity upregulates SLC22A17 in cultured mouse inner-medullary CD cells, whereas activation of toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4), via bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS), downregulates SLC22A17. This is similar to the upregulation of Aqp2 by hyperosmolarity/-tonicity and arginine vasopressin (AVP), and downregulation by TLR4 signaling, which occur via the transcription factors NFAT5 (TonEBP or OREBP), cAMP-responsive element binding protein (CREB), and nuclear factor-kappa B, respectively. The aim of the study was to determine the effects of osmolarity/tonicity and AVP, and their associated signaling pathways, on the expression of SLC22A17 and its ligand, LCN2, in the mouse (m) cortical collecting duct cell line mCCD(cl.1). Normosmolarity/-tonicity corresponded to 300 mosmol/L, whereas the addition of 50–100 mmol/L NaCl for up to 72 h induced hyperosmolarity/-tonicity (400–500 mosmol/L). RT-PCR, qPCR, immunoblotting and immunofluorescence microscopy detected Slc22a17/SLC22A17 and Lcn2/LCN2 expression. RNAi silenced Nfat5, and the pharmacological agent 666-15 blocked CREB. Activation of TLR4 was induced with LPS. Similar to Aqp2, hyperosmotic/-tonic media and AVP upregulated Slc22a17/SLC22A17, via activation of NFAT5 and CREB, respectively, and LPS/TLR4 signaling downregulated Slc22a17/SLC22A17. Conversely, though NFAT5 mediated the hyperosmolarity/-tonicity induced downregulation of Lcn2/LCN2 expression, AVP reduced Lcn2/LCN2 expression and predominantly apical LCN2 secretion, evoked by LPS, through a posttranslational mode of action that was independent of CREB signaling. In conclusion, the hyperosmotic/-tonic upregulation of SLC22A17 in mCCD(cl.1) cells, via NFAT5, and by AVP, via CREB, suggests that SLC22A17 contributes to adaptive osmotolerance, whereas LCN2 downregulation could counteract increased proliferation and permanent damage of osmotically stressed cells.

Carnosol suppresses interleukin-6 production in mouse lungs injured by ischemia–reperfusion operation and in RAW264.7 macrophages treated with lipopolysaccharide

Carnosol is a naturally occurring herbal compound, known for its antioxidative properties. We previously found that carnosol protected mouse lungs from ischemia–reperfusion injury in ex vivo cultures. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms underpinning carnosol-mediated lung protection, we analyzed modes of interleukin-6 (IL-6) gene expression, which is associated with lung ischemia–reperfusion injury. Microarray analysis of mouse lungs suggested that IL-6 mRNA levels were elevated in the mouse lungs subjected to clamp-reperfusion, which was associated with elevated levels of other inflammatory modulators, such as activating transcription factor 3 (ATF3). Carnosol pretreatment lowered the IL-6 protein levels in mouse lung homogenates prepared after the clamp-reperfusion. On the other hand, the ATF3 gene expression was negatively correlated with that of IL-6 in RAW264.7 cells. IL-6 mRNA levels and gene promoter activities were suppressed by carnosol in RAW264.7 cells, but rescued by ATF3 knockdown. When RAW264.7 cells were subjected to hypoxia–reoxygenation, carnosol treatment lowered oxygen consumption after reoxygenation, which was coupled with a correlation with a transient production of mitochondrial reactive oxygen species and following ATF3 gene expression. These results suggest that carnosol treatment could be a new strategy for protecting lungs from ischemia–reperfusion injury by modulating the ATF3–IL-6 axis.

Z-Guggulsterone attenuates astrocytes-mediated neuroinflammation after ischemia by inhibiting toll-like receptor 4 pathway

Inflammatory damage plays a pivotal role in ischemic stroke pathogenesis and may represent one of the therapeutic targets. Z-Guggulsterone (Z-GS), an active component derived from myrrh, has been used to treat various diseases. The traditional uses suggest that myrrh is a good candidate for anti-inflammatory damage. This study was to investigate the anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects of Z-GS following cerebral ischemic injury, as well as the exact mechanisms behind them. Rat middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) model and in vitro astrocytes oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD) model were adopted to simulate ischemic stroke. Z-GS (30 or 60 mg/kg) was administered intraperitoneally immediately after reperfusion, while astrocytes were maintained in 30 or 60 μM Z-GS before OGD treatment. The results indicated that Z-GS significantly alleviated neurological deficits, infarct volume and histopathological damage in vivo, and increased the astrocytes viability in vitro. Moreover, the treatment of Z-GS inhibited the astrocytes activation and down-regulated the mRNA levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, the activated TLR4-NF-κB signaling pathways induced by MCAO or OGD were significantly suppressed by Z-GS treatment, which was achieved via inhibiting the phosphorylation of JNK. Our results demonstrated that Z-GS exerted neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties through preventing activation of TLR4-mediated pathway in the activated astrocytes after ischemia injury. Therefore, Z-GS could be considered as a promising candidate for the treatment of ischemic stroke.

Googling the Guggul (Commiphora and Boswellia) for Prevention of Chronic Diseases

Extensive research during last 2 decades has revealed that most drugs discovered today, although costs billions of dollars for discovery, and yet they are highly ineffective in their clinical response. For instance, the European Medicines Agency has approved 68 anti-cancer drugs, and out of which 39 has reached the market level with no indication of increased survival nor betterment of quality of life. Even when drugs did improve survival rate compared to available treatment strategies, most of these were found to be clinically insignificant. This is a fundamental problem with modern drug discovery which is based on thinking that most chronic diseases are caused by alteration of a single gene and thus most therapies are single gene-targeted therapies. However, extensive research has revealed that most chronic diseases are caused by multiple gene products. Although most drugs designed by man are mono-targeted therapies, however, those designed by "mother nature" and have been used for thousands of years, are "multi-targeted" therapies. In this review, we examine two agents that have been around for thousands of years, namely "guggul" from Commiphora and Boswellia. Although we are all familiar with the search engine "google," this is another type of "guggul" that has been used for centuries and being explored for its various biological activities. The current review summarizes the traditional uses, chemistry, in vitro and in vivo biological activities, molecular targets, and clinical trials performed with these agents.

β-Sitosterol and stigmasterol ameliorate dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis in mice fed a high fat Western-style diet

Phytosterols, the plant analogues of cholesterol, widely occur in the human diet. In this study, we investigated and compared the effects of stigmasterol and β-sitosterol (both with purities ≥95%) on dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis in C57BL/6J male mice fed a high fat Western-style diet. Mice treated with DSS developed severe mucosal colitis, with a marked distortion and crypt loss of colonic surface epithelium. Both β-sitosterol and stigmasterol significantly inhibited colon shortening, lowered fecal hemoglobin content, and reduced the severity of colitis in the middle and distal colon (p < 0.05). These phytosterols also significantly suppressed the activation of nuclear factor-kappa B. They also significantly decreased colony stimulating factor-1 and the nuclear translocation of inflammatory master regulator nuclear factor-kappa B. Stigmasterol significantly lowered the colonic inflammation score and the expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and colony stimulating factor-1, while β-sitosterol was less or not effective. These results suggest that dietary intake of stigmasterol and β-sitosterol ameliorates colitis. Such activities of stigmasterol and β-sitosterol in humans remain to be investigated.

Guggulsterone and Its Role in Chronic Diseases

Guggulsterone is a plant sterol derived from gum resin of Commiphora wightii. The gum resin from guggul plants has been used for thousand years in Ayurveda to treat various disorders, including internal tumors, obesity, liver disorders, malignant sores and ulcers, urinary complaints, intestinal worms, leucoderma, sinuses, edema, and sudden paralytic seizures. Guggulsterone has been identified a bioactive components of this gum resin. This plant steroid has been reported to work as an antagonist of certain nuclear receptors, especially farnesoid X receptor, which regulates bile acids and cholesterol metabolism. Guggulsterone also mediates gene expression through the regulation of transcription factors, including nuclear factor-kappa B and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, which plays important roles in the development of inflammation and tumorigenesis. Guggulsterone has been shown to downregulate the expression of proteins involved in anti-apoptotic, cell survival, cell proliferation, angiogenic, metastatic, and chemoresistant activities in tumor cells. This review aimed to clarify the cell signal pathways targeted by guggulsterone and the bioactivities of guggulsterone in animal models and humans.