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Nautiyal H, Mathur V, Gajare KH, Teichroeb J, Sarkar D, Diogo R. Predatory Dogs as Drivers of Social Behavior Changes in the Central Himalayan Langur ( Semnopithecus schistaceus) in Agro-Forest Landscapes. BIOLOGY 2024; 13:410. [PMID: 38927290 PMCID: PMC11200765 DOI: 10.3390/biology13060410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2024] [Revised: 05/28/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
Globally, habitat fragmentation has increased the proximity between wildlife, humans, and emerging predators such as free-ranging dogs. In these fragmented landscapes, encounters between primates and dogs are escalating, with primates often falling victim to dog attacks while navigating patchy landscapes and fragmented forests. We aim to investigate how these primates deal with the simultaneous threats posed by humans and predators, specifically focusing on the adaptive strategies of Central Himalayan langur (CHL) in the landscape of fear. To address this, we conducted a behavioral study on the CHL in an agro-forest landscape, studying them for a total of 3912 h over two consecutive years. Our results indicate that, compared to their most common resting behavior, CHLs allocate more time to feeding and locomotion, and less time to socializing in the presence of humans and predatory dogs. Additionally, they exhibit increased feeding and locomotion and reduced social behavior in agro-forest or open habitats. These behavioral patterns reflect adaptive responses to the landscape of fear, where the presence of predators significantly influences their behavior and resource utilization. This study suggests measures to promote coexistence between humans and wildlife through the integration of effective management strategies that incorporate both ecological and social dimensions of human-wildlife interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Himani Nautiyal
- College of Medicine, Howard University, 520 W St, NW, Washington, DC 20059, USA;
| | - Virendra Mathur
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto, Scarborough 1265 Military Trail, Toronto, ON M1C 1A4, Canada; (V.M.); (J.T.)
| | - Kimaya Hemant Gajare
- Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan’s, Bhavan’s College, University of Mumbai, Andheri (w), Mumbai 400 058, India;
| | - Julie Teichroeb
- Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto, Scarborough 1265 Military Trail, Toronto, ON M1C 1A4, Canada; (V.M.); (J.T.)
| | - Dipto Sarkar
- Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON K1S 5B6, Canada;
| | - Rui Diogo
- College of Medicine, Howard University, 520 W St, NW, Washington, DC 20059, USA;
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2
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Molina-Vacas G, Muñoz-Mas R, Amarasekaran B, Garriga RM. Reaffirming the Loma Mountains National Park in Sierra Leone as a critical site for the conservation of West African chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus). Am J Primatol 2023; 85:e23469. [PMID: 36710071 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Revised: 01/02/2023] [Accepted: 01/14/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The population of West African chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) is declining rapidly mostly due to the impact of human activities and habitat loss. Sierra Leone harbors the third largest population of this subspecies, recently reclassified as Critically Endangered in the 2016 IUCN Red List. Population monitoring provides crucial data for planning and evaluating conservation and management policies. Therefore, to assess the status of the population size inhabiting the Loma Mountains National Park (LMNP) in Sierra Leone, we performed a nest count survey and estimated chimpanzee density and abundance using distance sampling. In total, 34 × 2-km-line transects were surveyed, with transects being systematically distributed across the LMNP area (288.5 km2 ). Concurrently, we compiled environmental data, which were used to model nest distribution and infer the most relevant environmental and anthropogenic drivers of the observed nest abundances. We encountered 10.03 nests/km and estimated a density of 3.47 ± standard error (SE) 0.92 individuals/km2 (i.e., 1002 ± SE 266 individuals in total). Compared to the figures obtained from a systematic literature review, our results suggest that the density and abundance of chimpanzees in the LMNP is among the highest across Africa. Contrary to expectation, no specific anthropogenic features predicted nest distribution and abundance. However, the nest distribution model indicated preference for elevated and steep areas covered by closed evergreen forest, which could be an indication of human avoidance. Based on these results, we highlight the value of LMNP for the conservation of the chimpanzees in Sierra Leone and the urgent necessity of guarantying long-term funding for this park's management to ensure the survival of this critically endangered subspecies in West Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillem Molina-Vacas
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Ecology and Environmental Biology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Rafael Muñoz-Mas
- Research Group in Continental Aquatic Ecology, GRECO, Institute of Aquatic Ecology, University of Girona, Girona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Bala Amarasekaran
- Department of Conservation Research Consultant, Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary, Freetown, Sierra Leone
| | - Rosa M Garriga
- Department of Conservation Research Consultant, Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary, Freetown, Sierra Leone
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3
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Long-Term Assessment of Captive Chimpanzees: Influence of Social Group Composition, Seasonality and Biographic Background. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13030424. [PMID: 36766313 PMCID: PMC9913678 DOI: 10.3390/ani13030424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) live in flexible fission-fusion societies with frequent changes in both group size and composition. These changes depend mostly on resource availability and individual social preferences yet in captivity are determined by housing organizations. During a period of seven years, we observed a group of sanctuary chimpanzees, focusing on how they adapted to changes in the group composition over time. Using linear mixed models (LMMs), factors such as group size, sex ratio, seasonality, and the individuals' sex and origin (wild caught vs. captive born) were considered in order to evaluate the impact on the chimpanzees' activity levels, the occurrence of undesired behaviors (abnormal and self-directed behaviors) and the social grooming networks. Our results indicate that the activity levels and the occurrence of undesired behaviors were impacted by changes in group composition and the individuals' biographic background. The colder season was marked by higher levels of activity and more time spent grooming. Moreover, it was the individuals' origin but not changes in group composition that affected social grooming, with wild-caught chimpanzees grooming far less frequently. Long-term observations are essential to evaluate, predict and detect potential benefits and/or issues of housing conditions while considering the social and physical environment.
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Couturier C, Lacroux C, Okimat JP, Asalu E, Krief S. Interindividual differences in crop foraging behavior of chimpanzees ( Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) at a forest–agriculture interface. J Mammal 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyac094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The expansion of agriculture in equatorial areas is fragmenting and reducing wildlife habitats. For primates, it also increases opportunities to consume crops as high-energy resources, exacerbates conflicts with farmers, and increases exposure to diseases and agrochemicals at the edge of protected areas. In species with sex differences in ranging behavior, individual exposure to such opportunities and threats may vary by sex. Chimpanzees show a great feeding flexibility and are territorial species with varied ranging patterns according to site, sex, or individuals. Within a community whose territory is crossed by a high-traffic road and partially bordered by maize gardens, we tested hypotheses of interindividual differences in access to crops based on age, sex, ranging behavior, and kinship. By analyzing the presence of Sebitoli chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii, Kibale National Park, Uganda) on video clips from 16 camera traps, we estimated the individual dispersion range across the community’s territory and the crop foraging frequency along maize gardens over 16 months. While all age and sex classes were represented at the forest–garden interface, large intrasex differences were observed: some mature males and females were not observed to participate. The crop foraging frequency of adult females in maize gardens was significantly correlated with the location of their ranging areas. Related individuals revealed similar range patterns within the forest territory without sharing crop foraging habits. However, social learning and energy and risks–benefits trade-offs as potential drivers of crop consumption are not excluded.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloé Couturier
- UMR 7206 CNRS – MNHN – P7, Eco-anthropologie, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle , Musée de l’Homme, 17 place du Trocadéro, 75116 Paris , France
- Great Ape Conservation Project (GACP), Sebitoli Research Station, Kibale National Park , Fort Portal , Uganda
- Fondation Nicolas Hulot pour la Nature et l’Homme , 6 rue de l’Est, 92100 Boulogne-Billancourt , France
| | - Camille Lacroux
- UMR 7206 CNRS – MNHN – P7, Eco-anthropologie, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle , Musée de l’Homme, 17 place du Trocadéro, 75116 Paris , France
- Great Ape Conservation Project (GACP), Sebitoli Research Station, Kibale National Park , Fort Portal , Uganda
- La Phocéenne de Cosmétique, ZA Les Roquassiers , 174 Rue de la Forge, 13300 Salon-de-Provence , France
- UMR 7179 CNRS – MNHN – P7, Mécanismes adaptatifs et Evolution, Museum National d’Histoire Naturelle , 57 rue Cuvier, 75231 Paris , France
| | - John Paul Okimat
- Great Ape Conservation Project (GACP), Sebitoli Research Station, Kibale National Park , Fort Portal , Uganda
| | | | - Sabrina Krief
- UMR 7206 CNRS – MNHN – P7, Eco-anthropologie, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle , Musée de l’Homme, 17 place du Trocadéro, 75116 Paris , France
- Great Ape Conservation Project (GACP), Sebitoli Research Station, Kibale National Park , Fort Portal , Uganda
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5
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Almeida-Warren K, Camara HD, Matsuzawa T, Carvalho S. Landscaping the Behavioural Ecology of Primate Stone Tool Use. INT J PRIMATOL 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-022-00305-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
AbstractEcology is fundamental in the development, transmission, and perpetuity of primate technology. Previous studies on tool site selection have addressed the relevance of targeted resources and raw materials for tools, but few have considered the broader foraging landscape. In this landscape-scale study of the ecological contexts of wild chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) tool use, we investigated the conditions required for nut-cracking to occur and persist in discrete locations at the long-term field site of Bossou, Guinea. We examined this at three levels: selection, frequency of use, and inactivity. We collected data on plant foods, nut trees, and raw materials using transect and quadrat methods, and conducted forest-wide surveys to map the location of nests and watercourses. We analysed data at the quadrat level (n = 82) using generalised linear models and descriptive statistics. We found that, further to the presence of a nut tree and availability of raw materials, abundance of food-providing trees as well as proximity to nest sites were significant predictors of nut-cracking occurrence. This suggests that the spatial distribution of nut-cracking sites is mediated by the broader behavioural landscape and is influenced by non-extractive foraging of perennial resources and non-foraging activities. Additionally, the number of functional tools was greater at sites with higher nut-cracking frequency, and was negatively correlated with site inactivity. Our research indicates that the technological landscape of Bossou chimpanzees shares affinities with the ‘favoured places’ model of hominin site formation, providing a comparative framework for reconstructing landscape-scale patterns of ancient human behaviour. A French translation of this abstract is provided in theelectronic supplementary information: EMS 2.
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6
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Plant community and native primate as drivers of habitat use by an exotic primate ( Saimiri spp. Linnaeus, 1758) in an Atlantic Forest fragment. JOURNAL OF TROPICAL ECOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1017/s0266467422000220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Understanding how and why exotic species use their habitats is crucial for defining effective conservation strategies. We aimed to investigate habitat use by an exotic population of squirrel monkeys living in an Atlantic Forest fragment and identify factors associated with their habitat preferences. Over 6 months of scan sampling observations, we collected data on native and exotic plants consumed by the squirrel monkeys, food availability, and interactions between the squirrel monkeys and the native common marmosets. We also georeferenced the estimated centroid point of the study group during each scan. Squirrel monkeys used Secondary Old Forest habitats more often than the other habitats available. The consumption of native and exotic plants and the association with common marmoset appear to have influenced the habitat use of the exotic squirrel monkeys; however, the choice habitat did not demonstrate to be associated with food availability. The exotic squirrel monkeys preferred to use less disturbed habitats to consume a high amount of food (often associated with the common marmoset), potentially optimizing their food intake. Our findings demonstrated the adaptive success of an exotic primate in its non-natural habitat and the key role of the plant community in maintaining this population.
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7
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Reyes PD, Baldovino MC, Aguiar LM. Urine washing in urban robust capuchin monkeys (Sapajus sp.): The relation with visitors. Am J Primatol 2022; 84:e23381. [PMID: 35389525 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
In primates, urine washing (UW) is a behavior in which individuals intentionally deposit urine on their bodies. Social and nonsocial hypotheses have been proposed to explain the adaptive function of this behavior. For capuchins, different functions have been assigned for UW, suggesting it as a flexible behavior, but studies have been mainly in captivity. However, no investigations have been performed in urban environments, where these animals can modify their behavior. Our goal was to study UW in a semi-provisioned group of an introduced unknown robust capuchin species (Sapajus sp.) living in a tiny urban fragment in Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil, where they have contact with humans. We assessed the influence of social (sexual, agonistic, and anointing behaviors) and environmental (temperature, relative air humidity, height of the monkeys in the trees, number of people present in the fragment, and human-monkey interactions) variables, the influence of behavior before and after UW, and the influence of sex-age classes, on the frequency of UW. We observed 75 records of UW in 300 h of observations, where urine was mostly deposited on hands and passed on to feet (95%). There were no significant differences in the frequency of the behavior between sex-age classes nor in the behaviors before and after UW. Around 50% of UW took place in the late morning and we found no correlation between UW and temperature, relative air humidity, nor the heights of the monkeys in the trees. However, we found a significant association between UW and the daily number of people in the fragment, but not between UW and human-monkey interactions, anointing, agonisms, and sexual behavior. Our study increases the scope of UW flexibility by identifying the presence of visitors affecting the occurrence of this behavior. We discussed different possibilities through which people could influence the capuchins to display UW.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricio D Reyes
- IADIZA-CONICET, Av. Ruiz Leal s/n, Parque General San Martín, Mendoza, Argentina
| | - María Celia Baldovino
- Instituto de Biología Subtropical-CONICET-Universidad Nacional de Misiones, Puerto Iguazú, Argentina.,Asociación Civil Centro de Investigaciones del Bosque Atlántico, Puerto Iguazú, Argentina
| | - Lucas M Aguiar
- Departamento de Zoologia, Setor de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal do Paraná (UFPR), Curitiba, Brazil.,Programa de Pós-graduação em Biodiversidade Neotropical, Intituto Latino-americano de Ciências da Vida e da Natureza, Universidade Federal da Integração Latino-Americana (UNILA), Foz do Iguaçu, Brazil
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8
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Satsias ZM, Silk MJ, Hockings KJ, Cibot M, Rohen J, McLennan MR. Sex-specific responses to anthropogenic risk shape wild chimpanzee social networks in a human-impacted landscape. Anim Behav 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2022.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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9
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Brittain S, Rowcliffe MJ, Kentatchime F, Tudge SJ, Kamogne‐Tagne CT, Milner‐Gulland E. Comparing interview methods with camera trap data to inform occupancy models of hunted mammals in forest habitats. CONSERVATION SCIENCE AND PRACTICE 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/csp2.12637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Brittain
- Department of Zoology University of Oxford Oxford UK
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London London UK
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10
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Giuliano C, Stewart FA, Piel AK. Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) grouping patterns in an open and dry savanna landscape, Issa Valley, western Tanzania. J Hum Evol 2022; 163:103137. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2021.103137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2020] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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11
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Kifle Z, Bekele A. Time budgets and activity patterns of the southern gelada (
Theropithecus gelada obscurus
) in a human‐modified landscape, Wollo, Ethiopia. Afr J Ecol 2022. [DOI: 10.1111/aje.12962] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zewdu Kifle
- Department of Biology Bahir Dar University Bahir Dar Ethiopia
- Department of Zoological Sciences Addis Ababa University Addis Ababa Ethiopia
| | - Afework Bekele
- Department of Zoological Sciences Addis Ababa University Addis Ababa Ethiopia
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12
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OUP accepted manuscript. J Mammal 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyac007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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13
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Koirala S, Garber PA, Somasundaram D, Katuwal HB, Ren B, Huang C, Li M. Factors affecting the crop raiding behavior of wild rhesus macaques in Nepal: Implications for wildlife management. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2021; 297:113331. [PMID: 34298347 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2021.113331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2021] [Revised: 07/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
In many areas of South Asia and Southeast Asia, macaques inhabiting agricultural landscapes are considered serious crop pests by local farmers. In Nepal, for example, the expansion of monocultures, increased forest fragmentation, the degradation of natural habitats, and changing agricultural practices have led to a significant increase in the frequency of human-macaque conflict. In order to more fully understand the set of factors that contribute to macaque crop raiding, and the set of preventive measures that can be put in place to avoid human-macaque conflict, we examined patterns of crop raiding by a group of 52 rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) in the Kavrepalanchok district, Nepal. We present data on macaque inflicted crop damage in 172 agricultural plots (each plot measuring 380 m2) from August to October 2019. Our results indicate that farmland invasions by macaques were principally affected by crop type (maize was preferred over rice), nearness of farmland to both the forest edge and the major travel route used by the macaques, and the mitigation efforts applied by farmers to discourage crop raiding. We found that as the proportion of maize farmland in the most direct path from the macaque's main travel route to nearby crop raiding sites increased, the amount of maize damage decreased. This is likely explained by the fact that macaques traveling across several adjacent maize fields encounter multiple farmers protecting their crops. We estimated that the financial cost to individual farmer households of macaque maize and rice raiding was on average US$ 14.9 or 4.2% of their annual income from cultivating those two crops. As human-macaque conflict is one of the most critical challenges faced by wildlife managers in South Asia and Southeast Asia, studies of macaque crop raiding behavior provide an important starting point for developing effective strategies to manage human-macaque conflict while promoting both primate conservation and the economic well-being of the local community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabina Koirala
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100101, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Paul A Garber
- Department of Anthropology, Program in Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation Biology, University of Illinois, Urbana, USA
| | - Deepakrishna Somasundaram
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China; Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Aerospace Information Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Haidian District, Beijing, 100094, China
| | - Hem Bahadur Katuwal
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China; Center for Integrative Conservation, Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Mengla, Yunnan, 666303, China
| | - Baoping Ren
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Chengming Huang
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Ming Li
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chaoyang District, Beijing, 100101, China; Center for Excellence in Animal Evolution and Genetics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming, 650223, China.
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14
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Fotang C, Bröring U, Roos C, Enoguanbhor EC, Dutton P, Tédonzong LRD, Willie J, Yuh YG, Birkhofer K. Environmental and anthropogenic effects on the nesting patterns of Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzees in North-West Cameroon. Am J Primatol 2021; 83:e23312. [PMID: 34343361 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Revised: 07/11/2021] [Accepted: 07/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Environmental conditions and human activity influence the selection of nest sites by chimpanzees and may have serious conservation implications. We examined the characteristics of nesting trees preferred by chimpanzees, investigated the effect of vegetation composition and topography on nest site locations and seasonality on nesting heights of chimpanzees, and verified the effect of predator occurrence and human activity on the nesting behavior of the Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes ellioti) in Kom-Wum Forest Reserve (KWFR) and surrounding unprotected forest in Cameroon. We recorded 923 nests, 502 signs of human activity, and 646 nesting trees along line transects and recces (reconnaissance) for two seasons. We found that chimpanzees constructed more arboreal nests on tall primary trees with high lowest branch height and large diameter at breast height. Moreover, they oriented their nests within trees in the slope direction when the nesting trees were located on slopes. Additionally, the occurrence of chimpanzee nests was positively related to increasing elevation and slope and decreased with distance to primary forest. In contrast, the number of nests increased with distance to secondary forest, open land, and villages, and nesting height was not influenced by seasons. While we recorded no signs of large nocturnal chimpanzee predators at nesting trees, we found signs of hunting activity at nesting locations. Nesting high in trees is likely a way of avoiding hunting, while nest orientation within trees in slope direction shortens escape routes from human hunters. Our findings suggest that chimpanzees select safe trees (tall trees with high lowest branch height) located in nesting areas (primary forest, high elevation, and steep slopes) that are not easily accessible by humans. Therefore, conservation efforts should focus on protecting primary forests at high elevation and steep slopes and reducing human impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chefor Fotang
- Department of Ecology, Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus-Senftenberg, Cottbus, Brandenburg, Germany
| | - Udo Bröring
- Department of Ecology, Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus-Senftenberg, Cottbus, Brandenburg, Germany
| | - Christian Roos
- German Primate Centre Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Gene Bank of Primates and Primate Genetics, Gottingen, Germany
| | - Evidence C Enoguanbhor
- Department of Geography, Humboldt University of Berlin, Applied Geoinformation Science Laboratory Berlin, Brandenburg, Germany
| | - Paul Dutton
- Independent Researcher, Waikato, New Zealand
| | - Luc R D Tédonzong
- Centre for Research and Conservation (CRC), Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp (RZSA), Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Jacob Willie
- Centre for Research and Conservation (CRC), Royal Zoological Society of Antwerp (RZSA), Antwerp, Belgium.,Department of Biology, Terrestrial Ecology Unit (TEREC), Ghent University (UGent), Ghent, Belgium
| | - Yisa G Yuh
- Hochschule fur nachhaltige Entwicklung Eberswalde, Forestry and Environment, Eberswalde, Germany.,Szkola Glowna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego, Warszawa, Poland.,Concordia University Montreal, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Klaus Birkhofer
- Department of Ecology, Brandenburg University of Technology Cottbus-Senftenberg, Cottbus, Brandenburg, Germany
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15
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Kifle Z, Bekele A. Feeding ecology and diet of the southern geladas ( Theropithecus gelada obscurus) in human-modified landscape, Wollo, Ethiopia. Ecol Evol 2021; 11:11373-11386. [PMID: 34429926 PMCID: PMC8366867 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Studying the dietary flexibility of primates that live in human-modified environments is crucial for understanding their ecological adaptations as well as developing management and conservation plans. Southern gelada (Theropithecus gelada obscurus) is an endemic little-known subspecies of gelada that inhabits human-modified landscapes in the northern central highlands of Ethiopia. During an 18-month period, we conducted this intensive study in an unprotected area of a human-modified landscape at Kosheme in Wollo to investigate the feeding ecology of southern geladas and their dietary responses to seasonal variations. We quantified the monthly and seasonal diet data from a band of southern geladas using instantaneous scan sampling method at 15-min intervals, and green grass phenology and availability using visual inspection from the randomly selected permanent plots. The overall average diet of southern geladas at Kosheme constituted grass blades 55.4%, grass undergrounds 13.2%, grass bulbs 5.6%, grass seeds 5.4%, herb leaves 4.0, fruits 7.3%, and cereal crops 5.6%. Grass blade consumption increased with increasing green grass availability, while underground food consumption increased with decreasing green grass availability, and vice versa. Southern geladas spent significantly more time feeding on the grass blades and herb leaves and significantly less time on bulbs during the wet season than the dry season. Underground grass items (rhizomes and corms) were not consumed during the wet season, but made up 22.3% of the dry season diet. Thus, although grass blades are staple diet items for geladas, underground diet items are important "fallback foods" at Kosheme. Our result shows insights into the dietary flexibility southern geladas adopt to cope with human-modified landscapes of the north-central Ethiopian Highlands. Thus, the study contributes to a better understanding of how changing environments shape primate ecology and evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zewdu Kifle
- Department of BiologyBahir Dar UniversityBahir DarEthiopia
- Department of Zoological SciencesAddis Ababa UniversityAddis AbabaEthiopia
| | - Afework Bekele
- Department of Zoological SciencesAddis Ababa UniversityAddis AbabaEthiopia
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16
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Dasgupta D, Banerjee A, Karar R, Banerjee D, Mitra S, Sardar P, Karmakar S, Bhattacharya A, Ghosh S, Bhattacharjee P, Paul M. Altered Food Habits? Understanding the Feeding Preference of Free-Ranging Gray Langurs Within an Urban Settlement. Front Psychol 2021; 12:649027. [PMID: 33981276 PMCID: PMC8107681 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.649027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Urbanization affects concurrent human-animal interactions as a result of altered resource availability and land use pattern, which leads to considerable ecological consequences. While some animals have lost their habitat due to urban encroachment, few of them managed to survive within the urban ecosystem by altering their natural behavioral patterns. The feeding repertoire of folivorous colobines, such as gray langur, largely consists of plant parts. However, these free-ranging langurs tend to be attuned to the processed high-calorie food sources to attain maximum benefits within the concrete jungle having insignificant greenery. Therefore, besides understanding their population dynamics, the effective management of these urbanized, free-ranging, non-human primate populations also depends on their altered feeding habits. Here, we have used a field-based experimental setup that allows gray langurs to choose between processed and unprocessed food options, being independent of any inter-specific conflicts over resources due to food scarcity. The multinomial logit model reveals the choice-based decision-making of these free-ranging gray langurs in an urban settlement of West Bengal, India, where they have not only learned to recognize the human-provisioned processed food items as an alternative food source but also shown a keen interest in it. However, such a mismatch between the generalized feeding behavior of folivorous colobines and their specialized gut physiology reminds us of Liem's paradox and demands considerable scientific attention. While urbanization imposes tremendous survival challenges to these animals, it also opens up for various alternative options for surviving in close proximity to humans which is reflected in this study, and could guide us for the establishment of a sustainable urban ecosystem in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dishari Dasgupta
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India
| | - Arnab Banerjee
- Centre for Mathematical Biology and Ecology, Department of Mathematics, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, India.,Systems Ecology and Ecological Modelling Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Visva-Bharati University, Santiniketan, India
| | - Rikita Karar
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India
| | - Debolina Banerjee
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India
| | - Shohini Mitra
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India
| | - Purnendu Sardar
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology (Indian School of Mines), Dhanbad, India
| | - Srijita Karmakar
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India.,Department of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Nadia, India
| | | | - Swastika Ghosh
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India
| | | | - Manabi Paul
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Calcutta, Kolkata, India
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17
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Chimpanzees balance resources and risk in an anthropogenic landscape of fear. Sci Rep 2021; 11:4569. [PMID: 33633129 PMCID: PMC7907193 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-83852-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Human-wildlife coexistence is possible when animals can meet their ecological requirements while managing human-induced risks. Understanding how wildlife balance these trade-offs in anthropogenic environments is crucial to develop effective strategies to reduce risks of negative interactions, including bi-directional aggression and disease transmission. For the first time, we use a landscape of fear framework with Bayesian spatiotemporal modelling to investigate anthropogenic risk-mitigation and optimal foraging trade-offs in Critically Endangered western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus). Using 12 months of camera trap data (21 camera traps, 6722 camera trap days) and phenology on wild and cultivated plant species collected at Caiquene–Cadique, Cantanhez National Park (Guinea-Bissau), we show that humans and chimpanzees broadly overlapped in their use of forest and anthropogenic parts of the habitat including villages and cultivated areas. The spatiotemporal model showed that chimpanzee use of space was predicted by the availability of naturalised oil-palm fruit. Chimpanzees used areas away from villages and agriculture more intensively, but optimised their foraging strategies by increasing their use of village areas with cultivated fruits when wild fruits were scarce. Our modelling approach generates fine-resolution space–time output maps, which can be scaled-up to identify human-wildlife interaction hotspots at the landscape level, informing coexistence strategy.
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18
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Fotang C, Bröring U, Roos C, Enoguanbhor EC, Abwe EE, Dutton P, Schierack P, Angwafo TE, Birkhofer K. Human Activity and Forest Degradation Threaten Populations of the Nigeria–Cameroon Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes ellioti) in Western Cameroon. INT J PRIMATOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-020-00191-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
AbstractIncreased human activities such as commodity-led deforestation, extension of agriculture, urbanization, and wildfires are major drivers of forest loss worldwide. In Cameroon, these activities cause a loss of suitable primate habitat and could ultimately threaten the survival of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). We derived independent estimates of the population size of the Endangered Nigeria–Cameroon chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes ellioti) in Kom-Wum Forest Reserve, Cameroon, and surrounding unprotected forest areas through 1) direct observations, 2) camera trapping, 3) distance sampling, 4) marked nest counts, and 5) standing crop nest counts. In addition, we georeferenced signs of chimpanzee and human activity along line transects. We used a generalized linear mixed model to predict the occurrence of chimpanzees in response to edge length (measured as the perimeter of core forest patches), core area of forest patches (measured as area of forest patches beyond an edge width of 100 m), habitat perforation (measured as the perimeter of nonforested landscape within core forest patches), patch size(measured as area of forest patches), and forest cover. Chimpanzee density estimates ranged from 0.1 (direct observation) to 0.9 (distance sampling) individuals km−2 depending on estimation method with a mean nest group size of 7 ± 5.4 (SD). The mean encounter rate for signs of chimpanzee activity was significantly higher in mature forests (2.3 signs km−1) than in secondary forests (0.3 signs km−1) and above 1000 m elevation (4.0 signs km−1) than below 1000 m (1.0 signs km−1). The mean encounter rate for signs of human activity was significantly higher in secondary (8.0 signs km−1) than in mature forests (0.9 signs km−1). Secondary forests, habitat perforation, and edge length had a significant negative effect on the occurrence of chimpanzee signs. Overall, human activity and forest degradation affected the number of observed chimpanzee signs negatively. Regular antipoaching patrols and reforestation programs in degraded areas could potentially reduce threats to populations of endangered species and may increase suitable habitat area.
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19
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Maijo SP, Piel AK, Treydte AC. Anthropogenic disturbance and chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) habitat use in the Masito-Ugalla Ecosystem, Tanzania. J Mammal 2020. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyaa101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
The habitat quality of chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), including the availability of plant food and nesting species, is important to ensure the long-term survival of this endangered species. Botanical composition of vegetation is spatially variable and depends on soil characteristics, weather, topography, and numerous other biotic and abiotic factors. There are few data regarding the availability of chimpanzee plant food and nesting species in the Masito-Ugalla Ecosystem (MUE), a vast area that lies outside national park boundaries in Tanzania, and how the availability of these resources varies with human disturbance. We hypothesized that chimpanzee plant food species richness, diversity, and abundance decline with increasing human disturbance. Further, we predicted that chimpanzee abundance and habitat use is influenced negatively by human disturbance. Published literature from Issa Valley, Gombe, and Mahale Mountains National Parks, in Tanzania, was used to document plant species consumed by chimpanzees, and quantify their richness, diversity, and abundance, along 32 transects totaling 63.8 km in length across four sites of varying human disturbance in MUE. We documented 102 chimpanzee plant food species and found a significant differences in their species richness (H = 55.09, P < 0.001) and diversity (H = 36.81, P < 0.001) across disturbance levels, with the moderately disturbed site exhibiting the highest species richness and diversity. Chimpanzees built nests in 17 different tree species. The abundance of nesting tree species did not vary across survey sites (H = 0.279, P > 0.964). The least disturbed site exhibited the highest encounter rate of chimpanzee nests/km, with rates declining toward the highly disturbed sites. Our results show that severe anthropogenic disturbance in MUE is associated with the loss of chimpanzee plant food species and negatively influences chimpanzee habitat use, a relationship that threatens the future of all chimpanzee populations outside national parks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simula P Maijo
- Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute, Arusha, Tanzania
- School of Life Sciences and Bio-engineering, The Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Tengeru, Arusha, Tanzania
| | - Alex K Piel
- Department of Anthropology, University College of London, Bloomsbury, London, United Kingdom
- GMERC, LTD, Kigoma, Tanzania
| | - Anna C Treydte
- School of Life Sciences and Bio-engineering, The Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and Technology, Tengeru, Arusha, Tanzania
- Agroecology in the Tropics and Subtropics, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
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20
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McLennan MR, Hintz B, Kiiza V, Rohen J, Lorenti GA, Hockings KJ. Surviving at the extreme: Chimpanzee ranging is not restricted in a deforested human‐dominated landscape in Uganda. Afr J Ecol 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/aje.12803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew R. McLennan
- Bulindi Chimpanzee and Community Project Hoima Uganda
- Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Oxford Brookes University Oxford UK
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation University of Exeter Cornwall UK
| | - Benjamin Hintz
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation University of Exeter Cornwall UK
| | - Vicent Kiiza
- Bulindi Chimpanzee and Community Project Hoima Uganda
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21
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Understanding foraging flexibility in urban vervet monkeys, Chlorocebus pygerythrus, for the benefit of human-wildlife coexistence. Urban Ecosyst 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11252-020-01014-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
AbstractGeneralist wildlife species often thrive in urban environments because of increased anthropogenic resources. However, human-wildlife interactions, especially if negative, raise concerns for urban wildlife management. An enhanced understanding of wildlife behavioural flexibility has been suggested to be a key tool to provide educated and effective management strategies. We therefore investigated how availability of semi-naturally occurring food affected behavioural foraging patterns of urban vervet monkeys (Chlorocebus pygerythrus), a generalist primate commonly found in urban areas of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Over one year, we conducted 20 min. focal animal observations recording foraging behaviour and food consumption. We used a combination of a generalised linear model and descriptive statistics to examine the relationship between anthropogenic food consumption and semi-natural food availability. Our analyses showed that anthropogenic food consumption decreased as semi-natural food availability increased. We also showed that increased aggression from humans towards vervet monkeys decreased time spent foraging on anthropogenic food. Our study highlights how vervet monkeys have adapted to their urban landscape, showing foraging flexibility in response to available food resources and the frequency of human interactions. We suggest how our results can be applied for management recommendations, particularly controlling anthropogenic food availability and decreasing negative human-wildlife interactions.
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22
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Balasubramaniam KN, Marty PR, Arlet ME, Beisner BA, Kaburu SSK, Bliss-Moreau E, Kodandaramaiah U, McCowan B. Impact of anthropogenic factors on affiliative behaviors among bonnet macaques. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2020; 171:704-717. [PMID: 32064585 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2019] [Revised: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES In primates, allogrooming and other affiliative behaviors confer many benefits and may be influenced by many socioecological factors. Of these, the impact of anthropogenic factors remain relatively understudied. Here we ask whether interactions with humans decreased macaques' affiliative behaviors by imposing time-constraints, or increased these behaviors on account of more free-/available-time due to macaques' consumption of high-energy human foods. MATERIALS AND METHODS In Southern India, we collected data on human-macaque and macaque-macaque interactions using focal-animal sampling on two groups of semi-urban bonnet macaques for 11 months. For each macaque within each climatic season, we calculated frequencies of human-macaque interactions, rates of monitoring human activity and foraging on anthropogenic food, dominance ranks, grooming duration, number of unique grooming partners, and frequencies of other affiliative interactions. RESULTS We found strong evidence for time-constraints on grooming. Macaques that monitored humans more groomed for shorter durations and groomed fewer partners, independent of their group membership, sex, dominance rank, and season. However, monitoring humans had no impact on other affiliative interactions. We found no evidence for the free-time hypothesis: foraging on anthropogenic food was unrelated to grooming and other affiliation. DISCUSSION Our results are consistent with recent findings on other urban-dwelling species/populations. Macaques in such environments may be especially reliant on other forms of affiliation that are of short duration (e.g., coalitionary support, lip-smacking) and unaffected by time-constraints. We stress on the importance of evaluating human impact on inter-individual differences in primate/wildlife behavior for conservation efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishna N Balasubramaniam
- Department of Population Health & Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California
| | - Pascal R Marty
- Department of Population Health & Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California
| | - Małgorzata E Arlet
- Institute of Human Biology and Evolution, University of Adam Mickiewicz in Poznań, Poland
| | - Brianne A Beisner
- Department of Population Health & Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California.,Neuroscience and Behavior Unit, California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California
| | - Stefano S K Kaburu
- Department of Biomedical Science and Physiology, Faculty of Science & Engineering, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton, United Kingdom
| | - Eliza Bliss-Moreau
- Neuroscience and Behavior Unit, California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California.,Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California
| | - Ullasa Kodandaramaiah
- IISER-TVM Centre for Research and Education in Ecology and Evolution (ICREEE), School of Biology, Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Thiruvananthapuram, Thiruvananthapuram, India
| | - Brenda McCowan
- Department of Population Health & Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, California.,Neuroscience and Behavior Unit, California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California
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23
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Bryson-Morrison N, Beer A, Gaspard Soumah A, Matsuzawa T, Humle T. The macronutrient composition of wild and cultivated plant foods of West African chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) inhabiting an anthropogenic landscape. Am J Primatol 2020; 82:e23102. [PMID: 32003053 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Agricultural expansion encroaches on tropical forests and primates in such landscapes frequently incorporate crops into their diet. Understanding the nutritional drivers behind crop-foraging can help inform conservation efforts to improve human-primate coexistence. This study builds on existing knowledge of primate diets in anthropogenic landscapes by estimating the macronutrient content of 24 wild and 11 cultivated foods (90.5% of food intake) consumed by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) at Bossou, Guinea, West Africa. We also compared the macronutrient composition of Bossou crops to published macronutrient measures of crops from Bulindi, Uganda, East Africa. The composition of wild fruits, leaves, and pith were consistent with previous reports for primate diets. Cultivated fruits were higher in carbohydrates and lower in insoluble fiber than wild fruits, while wild fruits were higher in protein. Macronutrient content of cultivated pith fell within the ranges of consumed wild pith. Oil palm food parts were relatively rich in carbohydrates, protein, lipids, and/or fermentable fiber, adding support for the nutritional importance of the oil palm for West African chimpanzees. We found no differences in the composition of cultivated fruits between Bossou and Bulindi, suggesting that macronutrient content alone does not explain differences in crop selection. Our results build on the current understanding of chimpanzee feeding ecology within forest-agricultural mosaics and provide additional support for the assumption that crops offer primates energetic benefits over wild foods.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andy Beer
- Royal Zoological Society Scotland (RZSS), Edinburgh Zoo, Edinburgh, UK.,Sparsholt College, Hampshire, UK
| | - Aly Gaspard Soumah
- Institut de Recherche Environmentale de Bossou (IREB), Bossou, Republic of Guinea
| | | | - Tatyana Humle
- Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology (DICE), School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, UK
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24
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LaBarge LR, Hill RA, Berman CM, Margulis SW, Allan ATL. Anthropogenic influences on primate antipredator behavior and implications for research and conservation. Am J Primatol 2020; 82:e23087. [PMID: 31894614 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 12/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Predation risk affects prey species' behavior, even in the absence of a direct threat, but human-induced environmental change may disturb ecologically significant predator-prey interactions. Here, we propose various ways in which knowledge of antipredator tactics, behavioral risk effects, and primate-predator interactions could assist in identifying human-caused disruption to natural systems. Using behavior to evaluate primate responses to the ongoing environmental change should be a potentially effective way to make species conservation more predictive by identifying issues before a more dramatic population declines. A key challenge here is that studies of predation on primates often use data collected via direct observations of habituated animals and human presence can deter carnivores and influence subjects' perception of risk. Hence, we also review various indirect data collection methods to evaluate their effectiveness in identifying where environmental change threatens wild species, while also minimizing observer bias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura R LaBarge
- Department of Environment and Sustainability, Program in Evolution, Ecology, and Behavior, The State University of New York at Buffalo, Amherst, New York.,Primate and Predator Project, Lajuma Research Centre, Louis Trichardt, South Africa
| | - Russell A Hill
- Primate and Predator Project, Lajuma Research Centre, Louis Trichardt, South Africa.,Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Durham, UK.,Department of Zoology, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa
| | - Carol M Berman
- Department of Environment and Sustainability, Program in Evolution, Ecology, and Behavior, The State University of New York at Buffalo, Amherst, New York.,Department of Anthropology, The State University of New York at Buffalo, Amherst, New York
| | - Susan W Margulis
- Department of Animal Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation, Canisius College, Buffalo, New York.,Department of Biology, Canisius College, Buffalo, New York
| | - Andrew T L Allan
- Primate and Predator Project, Lajuma Research Centre, Louis Trichardt, South Africa.,Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Durham, UK
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25
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Chowdhury S, Brown J, Swedell L. Anthropogenic effects on the physiology and behaviour of chacma baboons in the Cape Peninsula of South Africa. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2020; 8:coaa066. [PMID: 34336216 PMCID: PMC7428446 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coaa066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Revised: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 07/22/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
As animals increasingly occupy habitats in proximity to humans, with home ranges a mosaic of natural and anthropogenic landscapes, it becomes imperative from a conservation perspective to understand the impacts of human activities on wildlife. Many non-human primates share habitats with humans, an ability stemming largely from shared ecological needs due to our close evolutionary relationship. Such proximity, however, is often accompanied by direct conflict between humans and wildlife, leading to higher stress levels, injuries, mortality and behavioural changes, with detrimental effects on long-term health and fitness. Glucocorticoid (GC) hormones, which are released in response to ecological and social challenges, are increasingly employed to understand responses to anthropogenic disturbance. Here we investigate physiological and behavioural responses of female chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) to variation in spatial overlap and conflict with humans in their natural home range. The baboons resided in the Tokai Section of Table Mountain National Park in the Cape Peninsula of South Africa, where their home range included four types of habitats: protected, suburban, agricultural and mosaic areas. We studied the largest group of baboons in Tokai (70 individuals) and examined the effects of ranging in these different habitats on the faecal GCs and behaviour of all adult females in the troop (N = 16). We found time spent ranging in more anthropogenic habitats to be associated with higher levels of GCs, more aggression, less time socializing and shorter grooming bouts. Self-directed behaviour, however, varied and did not necessarily reflect physiological measures of stress. Taken together, the results of this study highlight the risks associated with ranging in anthropogenic environments and point to the need for a multifaceted approach to studying the negative impacts of human activities on animals so as to better inform conservation practices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahrina Chowdhury
- Department of Anthropology, Brooklyn College, CUNY, 2900 Bedford Ave, Brooklyn, NY 11210, USA
- Anthropology Program, Graduate Center, CUNY, New York, NY 10016, USA
- New York Consortium in Evolutionary Primatology (NYCEP), New York, NY 10016, USA
- Corresponding author: Department of Anthropology, Brooklyn College—CUNY, 2900 Bedford Ave, Brooklyn, NY 11210, USA. Tel: 1-718-951-5000 x.2136.
| | - Janine Brown
- Endocrinology Laboratory, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, Front Royal, VA 22630, USA
| | - Larissa Swedell
- Anthropology Program, Graduate Center, CUNY, New York, NY 10016, USA
- New York Consortium in Evolutionary Primatology (NYCEP), New York, NY 10016, USA
- Department of Anthropology, Queens College, CUNY, Flushing, NY 11367, USA
- Department of Archaeology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town 7700, South Africa
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26
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Management of Forest-Dwelling and Urban Species: Case Studies of the Lion-Tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus) and the Bonnet Macaque (M. radiata). INT J PRIMATOL 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-019-00122-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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27
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Waterman JO, Campbell LAD, Maréchal L, Pilot M, Majolo B. Effect of human activity on habitat selection in the endangered Barbary macaque. Anim Conserv 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/acv.12543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J. O. Waterman
- School of Psychology University of Lincoln Lincoln UK
- School of Natural Sciences & Psychology Liverpool John Moores University Liverpool UK
| | - L. A. D. Campbell
- School of Psychology University of Lincoln Lincoln UK
- WildCRU, Recanti‐Kaplan Centre University of Oxford Tubney UK
| | - L. Maréchal
- School of Psychology University of Lincoln Lincoln UK
| | - M. Pilot
- School of Life Sciences University of Lincoln Lincoln UK
- Museum and Institute of Zoology Polish Academy of Sciences Gdańsk Poland
| | - B. Majolo
- School of Psychology University of Lincoln Lincoln UK
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28
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Dias FS, Wenceslau JFC, Marques TA, Miller DL. Density and distribution of western chimpanzees around a bauxite deposit in the Boé Sector, Guinea-Bissau. Am J Primatol 2019; 81:e23047. [PMID: 31520454 DOI: 10.1002/ajp.23047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Revised: 07/21/2019] [Accepted: 07/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The Boé sector in southeast Guinea-Bissau harbors a population of western chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus) that inhabits a mosaic of forest and savanna. The Boé sector contains a substantial bauxite deposit in a region called Ronde Hill, and there are plans for the construction of a mine, which may endanger the chimpanzee population. In 1-week survey in May 2013, we used the standing crop nest counts method to obtain the number of chimpanzee nests and from that estimate the density and abundance of chimpanzees. We carried out five 1-km line transects that covered the bauxite deposit and surrounding valleys. We used density surface modeling to analyze habitat preferences, then predicted chimpanzee nest density and distribution based on environmental variables. We found the projected location of the mine partially coincides with an area of high predicted abundances of chimpanzee nests and is surrounded by highly suitable areas for chimpanzees (northeast and southwest). We conclude the mine could have significant direct and indirect effects on this population of chimpanzees whose impacts must be carefully considered and properly mitigated if the mine is built.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filipe S Dias
- Centre for Applied Ecology "Prof. Baeta Neves" (CEABN-InBIO), School of Agriculture, University of Lisbon, Tapada da Ajuda, Lisbon, Portugal.,Laboratório Associado, CIBIO/InBio, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Universidade do Porto, Campus Agrário de Vairão, Vairão, Portugal.,Laboratório Associado, CIBIO/InBio, Centro de Investigação em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos, Instituto Superior de Agronomia, Universidade de Lisboa, Tapada da Ajuda, Lisbon, Portugal
| | | | - Tiago A Marques
- Centre for Research into Ecological & Environmental Modelling and School of Mathematics & Statistics, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Scotland, United Kingdom.,Departamento de Biologia Animal, Centro de Estatística e Aplicações da Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - David L Miller
- Departamento de Biologia Animal, Centro de Estatística e Aplicações da Universidade de Lisboa, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
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29
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Chan SCY, Karczmarski L. Epidermal Lesions and Injuries of Coastal Dolphins as Indicators of Ecological Health. ECOHEALTH 2019; 16:576-582. [PMID: 31328242 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-019-01428-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2018] [Revised: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 05/30/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Humpback dolphins (genus Sousa), obligatory inshore delphinids, are frequently exposed to adverse effects of many human activities. In Hong Kong, one of the world's most urbanised coastal regions, ~ 50% of the dolphins suffer from at least one type of epidermal lesions, likely related to anthropogenically degraded habitat. Furthermore, one in every ten dolphins has physical injuries indicative of vessel collisions, propeller cuts and fishing-gear entanglements. As top predators with long lifespan, dolphins are good "barometers" of marine environment and their compromised health conditions are symptomatic of increasingly degraded ecological conditions of coastal seas, especially in rapidly developing regions of fast-growing economies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen C Y Chan
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong
- Cetacean Ecology Lab, Cetacea Research Institute, Lantau, Hong Kong
| | - Leszek Karczmarski
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong.
- Cetacean Ecology Lab, Cetacea Research Institute, Lantau, Hong Kong.
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Thatcher HR, Downs CT, Koyama NF. Positive and Negative Interactions with Humans Concurrently Affect Vervet Monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) Ranging Behavior. INT J PRIMATOL 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-019-00099-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Spatial Response to Linear Infrastructures by the Endangered Golden Lion Tamarin. DIVERSITY 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/d11070100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Linear infrastructures are a primary driver of economic development. However, they also can negatively affect wildlife by mortality and the barrier effect. In this paper, we address how paved and unpaved roads, high-tension power lines, and gas/oil pipelines affect home range size, core areas, and movement in an endangered primate, the golden lion tamarin (GLT). Location data were recorded using radio telemetry on 16 groups in two protected areas and in privately owned forest fragments. The GLT’s home range, not core area, increased in size for the groups that occupied locations far from linear infrastructures; home range was also significantly influenced by available forest size. None of the home ranges contained a road, but home ranges did contain power lines. GLTs used the surrounding landscape near all types of infrastructure. Movement analysis showed that most of the step lengths (distances between subsequent locations) were less than 100 m between two consecutive locations, but step length was longer for roads and longer for groups in fully forested habitats. Tamarins avoided paved roads when in close proximity to this type of infrastructure; this behavior increased in areas without adequate adjacent forest habitat. Our results show that linear infrastructures differ in their level of impact: roads can act as a barrier, whereas other types of infrastructure have minimal effect on movement and home range. We discuss these differences in impact in terms of structure, maintenance schedules, and edge effects of infrastructure.
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Garriga RM, Marco I, Casas-Díaz E, Acevedo P, Amarasekaran B, Cuadrado L, Humle T. Factors influencing wild chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes verus) relative abundance in an agriculture-swamp matrix outside protected areas. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0215545. [PMID: 31095574 PMCID: PMC6522039 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0215545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Human population growth and anthropogenic activities are exacerbating pressures on biodiversity globally. Land conversion is aggravating habitat fragmentation and non-human primates are increasingly compelled to live in forest-agricultural mosaics. In Sierra Leone, more than half of the wild chimpanzee population (Pan troglodytes verus) occurs outside protected areas and competes for resources with farmers. Our study area, in the Moyamba district in south-western Sierra Leone, is practically devoid of forest and is dominated by cultivated and fallow fields, swamps and mangroves. In this region, traditional slash-and-burn agriculture modifies annually the landscape, sparing swamps and mangroves and semi-domesticated oil palms (Elaeis guineensis). This study aimed to explore ecological and anthropogenic factors influencing chimpanzee relative abundance across this highly degraded and human-impacted landscape. Between 2015 and 2016, we deployed 24 camera traps systematically across 27 1.25x1.25 km grid cells. Cameras were operational over a period of 8 months. We used binomial iCAR models to examine to what extent anthropogenic (roads, settlements, abandoned settlements and human presence) and habitat variables (swamps, farmland and mangroves) shape chimpanzee relative abundance. The best model explained 43.16% of the variation with distance to roads and swamps emerging as the best predictors of chimpanzee relative abundance. Our results suggest that chimpanzees avoid roads and prefer to maintain proximity to swamps. There was no significant effect of settlements, abandoned settlements, mangroves or human presence. It appears that chimpanzees do not avoid areas frequented by people; although, our findings suggest temporal avoidance between the two species. We highlight the importance of studying chimpanzee populations living in anthropogenic habitats like agricultural-swamp matrixes to better understand factors influencing their distribution and inform conservation planning outside protected areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosa M. Garriga
- Servei d’Ecopatologia de Fauna Salvatge, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Tacugama Chimpanzee Sanctuary, Freetown, Sierra Leone
| | - Ignasi Marco
- Servei d’Ecopatologia de Fauna Salvatge, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Encarna Casas-Díaz
- Departament de Sanitat i Anatomia Animals, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pelayo Acevedo
- Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos, Ciudad Real, Spain
| | | | - Luna Cuadrado
- Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, United Kingdom
| | - Tatyana Humle
- Durrell Institute of Conservation and Ecology, School of Anthropology and Conservation, University of Kent, Canterbury, United Kingdom
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Marty PR, Beisner B, Kaburu SS, Balasubramaniam K, Bliss-Moreau E, Ruppert N, Mohd Sah SA, Ismail A, Arlet ME, Atwill ER, McCowan B. Time constraints imposed by anthropogenic environments alter social behaviour in longtailed macaques. Anim Behav 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2019.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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Kaburu SSK, Marty PR, Beisner B, Balasubramaniam KN, Bliss-Moreau E, Kaur K, Mohan L, McCowan B. Rates of human-macaque interactions affect grooming behavior among urban-dwelling rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2018; 168:92-103. [PMID: 30368773 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2018] [Revised: 09/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/11/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The impact of anthropogenic environmental changes may impose strong pressures on the behavioral flexibility of free-ranging animals. Here, we examine whether rates of interactions with humans had both a direct and indirect influence on the duration and distribution of social grooming in commensal rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). MATERIALS AND METHODS Data were collected in two locations in the city of Shimla in northern India: an urban setting and a temple area. We divided these two locations in a series of similar-sized physical blocks (N = 48) with varying rates of human-macaque interactions. We conducted focal observations on three free-ranging rhesus macaque groups, one in the urban area and two in the temple area. RESULTS Our analysis shows that macaques engaged in shorter grooming bouts and were more vigilant while grooming in focal sessions during which they interacted with people more frequently, suggesting that humans directly affected grooming effort and vigilance behavior. Furthermore, we found that in blocks characterized by higher rates of human-macaque interactions grooming bouts were shorter, more frequently interrupted by vigilance behavior, and were less frequently reciprocated. DISCUSSION Our work shows that the rates of human-macaque interaction had both a direct and indirect impact on grooming behavior and that macaques flexibly modified their grooming interactions in relation to the rates of human-macaque interaction to which they were exposed. Because grooming has important social and hygienic functions in nonhuman primates, our work suggests that human presence can have important implications for animal health, social relationships and, ultimately, fitness. Our results point to the need of areas away from people even for highly adaptable species where they can engage in social interactions without human disruption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano S K Kaburu
- Department of Population Health & Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California.,Department of Biomedical Science & Physiology, Faculty of Science & Engineering, University of Wolverhampton, Wolverhampton, United Kingdom
| | - Pascal R Marty
- Department of Population Health & Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Brianne Beisner
- Department of Population Health & Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California.,California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Krishna N Balasubramaniam
- Department of Population Health & Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Eliza Bliss-Moreau
- California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, California.,Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California
| | - Kawaljit Kaur
- Department of Population Health & Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California
| | - Lalit Mohan
- Himachal Pradesh Forest Department, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Brenda McCowan
- Department of Population Health & Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California.,California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, California
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Grueter CC, Wright E, Abavandimwe D, Ortmann S, Mudakikwa A, Musana A, Uwingeli P, Ndagijimana F, Vecellio V, Stoinski TS, Robbins MM. Going to extremes for sodium acquisition: use of community land and high-altitude areas by mountain gorillas Gorilla beringei
in Rwanda. Biotropica 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/btp.12598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Cyril C. Grueter
- School of Human Sciences; The University of Western Australia; Perth WA 6009 Australia
- Centre for Evolutionary Biology; School of Biological Sciences; The University of Western Australia; Perth WA 6009 Australia
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology; Deutscher Platz 6 04103 Leipzig Germany
- The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International; 800 Cherokee Avenue SE Atlanta GA 30315 USA
| | - Edward Wright
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology; Deutscher Platz 6 04103 Leipzig Germany
| | - Didier Abavandimwe
- The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International; 800 Cherokee Avenue SE Atlanta GA 30315 USA
| | - Sylvia Ortmann
- Department of Evolutionary Ecology; Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research; Alfred-Kowalke-Straße 17 10315 Berlin Germany
| | - Antoine Mudakikwa
- Tourism and Conservation; Rwanda Development Board (RDB); P.O. Box 6239 Kigali Rwanda
| | - Abel Musana
- Tourism and Conservation; Rwanda Development Board (RDB); P.O. Box 6239 Kigali Rwanda
| | - Propser Uwingeli
- Tourism and Conservation; Rwanda Development Board (RDB); P.O. Box 6239 Kigali Rwanda
| | - Felix Ndagijimana
- The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International; 800 Cherokee Avenue SE Atlanta GA 30315 USA
| | - Veronica Vecellio
- The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International; 800 Cherokee Avenue SE Atlanta GA 30315 USA
| | - Tara S. Stoinski
- The Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International; 800 Cherokee Avenue SE Atlanta GA 30315 USA
| | - Martha M. Robbins
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology; Deutscher Platz 6 04103 Leipzig Germany
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Rangel-Negrín A, Coyohua-Fuentes A, Canales-Espinosa D, Dias PAD. The Influence of Leaf Consumption on Time Allocation in Black Howler Monkeys (Alouatta pigra). Folia Primatol (Basel) 2018. [PMID: 29514166 DOI: 10.1159/000486414] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The analysis of factors that determine variation in time budgets is important to understand the interactions between environment, behaviour and fitness. We tested the hypothesis that changes in the dietary patterns of black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra) caused by a decrease in the availability of preferred foods are a main determinant of variation in time budgets. We predicted that individuals would trade off travel time for resting time (i.e., minimize energy expenditure) as the diet included more leaves. We conducted our study in the Mexican state of Campeche between 2005 and 2008, where we studied the behaviour of 28 adult males and 32 adult females belonging to 14 different groups for a total of 3,747.2 focal sampling hours. Study groups lived in forest fragments with variation in habitat quality. Individuals showed different rest:travel trade-offs in response to leaf consumption according to the quality of the forest fragments they lived in. Individuals that lived in high-quality fragments increased resting time under more folivorous regimes, whereas those living in low-quality fragments increased travel time. Our results suggest that howler monkeys living in low-quality fragments spend more time foraging to compensate for the low quality of the available resources.
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Steffens KJE, Jacques Rakotondranary S, Ratovonamana YR, Ganzhorn JU. Vegetation Thresholds for the Occurrence and Dispersal of Microcebus griseorufus in Southwestern Madagascar. INT J PRIMATOL 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-017-0003-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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The Implications of Primate Behavioral Flexibility for Sustainable Human–Primate Coexistence in Anthropogenic Habitats. INT J PRIMATOL 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s10764-017-9962-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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