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Desai B, Bhowmik T, Srinivasan R, Whitaker N, Ghosal R. Monitoring the stress physiology of free-ranging mugger crocodiles ( Crocodylus palustris) across diverse habitats within Central Gujarat, India. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2024; 12:coae035. [PMID: 38840751 PMCID: PMC11151695 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coae035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 05/03/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
Animals face several challenges in their natural environment, and to cope with such conditions, they may exhibit contrasting physiological responses that directly affect their overall well-being and survival. In this study, we assessed physiological responses via faecal glucocorticoid metabolite (fGCM) measurements in free-ranging mugger crocodiles inhabiting diverse habitats in Gujarat, India. We sampled muggers within Charotar, a rural area (Zone A) with local people having high tolerance towards the presence of muggers, and Vadodara, a region having both urban (Zone B) and rural (Zone C) areas with high levels of human-mugger conflict (HMC). Further, muggers in Vadodara live in water bodies that are mostly polluted due to sewage disposal from adjoining chemical industries. To measure fGCM (mean ± SEM, ng/g dry faeces) levels in muggers, scats were collected during both breeding (N = 107 scats) and non-breeding (N = 22 scats) seasons from all three zones. We used captive muggers (a focal enclosure) to biologically validate (via capture and restraint) the selected fGCM assay (11-oxoetiocholanolone assay). We showed a significant (P < 0.05) 11-fold increase in fGCM levels between pre-capture (540.9 ± 149.2, N = 11) and post-capture (6259.7 ± 1150.5, N = 11) samples. The validated assay was applied to free-ranging muggers during the breeding season, and Zone A showed significantly (P < 0.05) lower fGCM levels (542.03 ± 71.3) compared to muggers of Zone B (1699.9 ± 180.8) and Zone C (1806.4 ± 243.2), both zones having high levels of HMC with polluted water bodies. A similar contrast in fGCM levels was also observed during the non-breeding season. Overall, the study demonstrated that fGCM levels in muggers varied across habitats, and such variation could be due to a multitude of ecological factors that the species experience in their immediate local environment. Moreover, high fGCM levels in muggers of Vadodara during both breeding and non-breeding seasons may indicate a condition of chronic stress, which could be maladaptive for the species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brinky Desai
- Biological and Life Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, Ahmedabad University, Commerce Six Roads, Navrangpura, Ahmedabad 380009, Gujarat, India
| | - Tathagata Bhowmik
- Biological and Life Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, Ahmedabad University, Commerce Six Roads, Navrangpura, Ahmedabad 380009, Gujarat, India
| | - Rohith Srinivasan
- Biological and Life Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, Ahmedabad University, Commerce Six Roads, Navrangpura, Ahmedabad 380009, Gujarat, India
| | - Nikhil Whitaker
- Madras Crocodile Bank Trust, Post Bag No 4, Mahabalipuram, Chennai 603104, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Ratna Ghosal
- Biological and Life Sciences, School of Arts and Sciences, Ahmedabad University, Commerce Six Roads, Navrangpura, Ahmedabad 380009, Gujarat, India
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Mayagoitia-Novales L, Cerda-Molina AL, Martín-Guerrero MA, Muñoz-Zamudio E, Estudillo-Mendoza GR, Borráz-León JI. The Comparative Effect of Occupational and Musical Enrichment on Fecal Glucocorticoid Metabolite Levels in a Captive Colony of Stumptail Macaques ( Macaca arctoides). BIOLOGY 2024; 13:124. [PMID: 38392342 PMCID: PMC10887012 DOI: 10.3390/biology13020124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Revised: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Environmental enrichment improves captive animal welfare by reducing stress-related behaviors. Previous studies in a captive colony of stumptail macaques (Macaca arctoides) reported a reduction of aggression, coprophilia, and stereotypic behaviors after an occupational enrichment program; however, the effect on stress hormones such as glucocorticoids has not been investigated yet. The goal of this study was to compare the effect of sex, age, and social rank on changes in fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCM) after applying two kinds of enrichments (occupational vs. musical) in a captive colony of stumptail macaques. We collected 234 fecal samples from 25 stumptail macaques under the following conditions: (1) basal (no enrichment), (2) three weeks of occupational enrichment, and (3) three weeks of relaxing/classical music. The Generalized Estimated Equation Model showed an increase in fGCM levels after the occupational enrichment only in adult subjects (p = 0.003 compared to basal). The fGCM levels reached by the adults after the occupational enrichment was higher than that of juveniles (p = 0.002) and subadults (p = 0.02). Occupational and musical enrichment decreased fGCM levels only in middle-ranking individuals (p < 0.001 and p = 0.013, respectively). No sex differences were found. In conclusion, there were age and rank differences in individuals' physiological reactivity to the effects of environmental enrichment which need to be considered when planning enrichment programs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lilian Mayagoitia-Novales
- Departamento de Etología, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría "Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz", Ciudad de México 14370, Mexico
| | - Ana Lilia Cerda-Molina
- Departamento de Etología, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría "Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz", Ciudad de México 14370, Mexico
| | - María Andrea Martín-Guerrero
- Licenciatura en Antropología Física, Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia (ENAH), Ciudad de México 14030, Mexico
| | - Emmanuel Muñoz-Zamudio
- Departamento de Bioterio, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría "Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz", Ciudad de México 14370, Mexico
| | - Gema R Estudillo-Mendoza
- Departamento de Etología, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría "Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz", Ciudad de México 14370, Mexico
| | - Javier I Borráz-León
- Departamento de Etología, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría "Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz", Ciudad de México 14370, Mexico
- Investigador por México, Consejo Nacional de Humanidades, Ciencias y Tecnologías, CONAHCYT, Ciudad de México 03940, Mexico
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Cerda-Molina AL, Borráz-León JI, Matamoros-Trejo G, de la O C, Estudillo-Mendoza GR, Mayagoitia-Novales L, Maestripieri D. Testing the Challenge Hypothesis in Stumptail Macaque Males: The Role of Testosterone and Glucocorticoid Metabolites in Aggressive and Mating Behavior. BIOLOGY 2023; 12:813. [PMID: 37372098 DOI: 10.3390/biology12060813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2023] [Revised: 05/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
The "challenge hypothesis" predicts higher male-male aggressive behavior along with increases in testosterone levels during times of reproductive challenges and social instability. In addition, in some primate species, higher glucocorticoid levels can be observed as well, but this is usually modulated by dominance rank. We studied rank-related aggressive behavior, mating activity, and fecal testosterone and glucocorticoid metabolites (fTm and fGCm) in male stumptail macaques (Macaca arctoides) in order to test some predictions of the "challenge hypothesis". Over a 20-month period, we collected data on aggressive behavior and copulation, as well as fecal samples (n = 700) to quantify fTm and fGCm in seven adult stumptail males living in captivity. During periods of mating activity, male-to-male aggression increased in higher- and middle-ranking males. Neither fTm nor fGCm levels predicted male-to-male aggression. fGCm levels (but not fTm) were positively associated with male-to-female aggression; however, this association was pronounced during periods of mating activity. fGCm levels differed according to social rank, with middle-ranking males having the highest levels. Both hormones were higher during periods of mating activity, but only in higher- and middle-ranking males. Taken together, our findings partially support the challenge hypothesis in a non-seasonal primate and shed some light on the unique social and mating system of the stumptail macaque.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Lilia Cerda-Molina
- Departamento de Etología, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría "Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz", Ciudad de México 14370, Mexico
| | - Javier I Borráz-León
- Departamento de Etología, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría "Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz", Ciudad de México 14370, Mexico
- Institute for Mind and Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Gilberto Matamoros-Trejo
- Departamento de Neurofisiología Molecular, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría "Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz", Ciudad de México 14370, Mexico
| | - Claudio de la O
- FES Zaragoza C-III, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Santa Cruz Tlaxcala 90640, Mexico
- Escuela de Psicología, Universidad Latina, Ciudad de México 4330, Mexico
| | - Gema R Estudillo-Mendoza
- Departamento de Etología, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría "Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz", Ciudad de México 14370, Mexico
| | - Lilian Mayagoitia-Novales
- Departamento de Etología, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría "Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz", Ciudad de México 14370, Mexico
| | - Dario Maestripieri
- Institute for Mind and Biology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
- Department of Comparative Human Development, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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King AG, Edwards PD, Cote S, Palme R, Boonstra R, Sicotte P. Assessing stress in wild black-and-white colobus monkeys non-invasively. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2023; 334:114212. [PMID: 36646325 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2023.114212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Analysis of glucocorticoid profiles serves as a valuable, multi-faceted tool for insight into the behavior and physiology of wild populations. Recently, the measurement of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FCMs) has exploded in popularity due to its compatibility with noninvasive techniques and remote environments A critical first step is to perform a biological validation to ensure that the assay accurately reflect changes in FCM levels. We use an enzyme immunoassay (EIA) to perform a biological validation on samples collected from two males and six females in a wild population of Colobus vellerosus in response to three naturally occurring potential stressors. We also describe the FCM response pattern in the week following parturition in three females and examine the influence of sex, reproductive state, and time of day on the concentrations of baseline samples collected daily from 13 adult individuals over a period of four months. We validated the assay: FCM levels increase in response to natural stressors with a two-day lag. In the two days surrounding parturition, FMC levels increased. Baseline concentrations were affected by collection time and female reproductive state, with lactating females having lower concentrations than pregnant or cycling females. Thus, we successfully carried out the first validation and characterization of FCMs in a wild African colobine. This will serve as an essential foundation for future studies of C. vellerosus and similar wild primates whose objective is to investigate the role glucocorticoids play in responses to social and ecological challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Allyson G King
- Department of Anthropology & Archaeology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada.
| | - Phoebe D Edwards
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, ON L5L 1C6, Canada; Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON M1C 1A4, Canada; Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3B2, Canada
| | - Susanne Cote
- Department of Anthropology & Archaeology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Rupert Palme
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Rudy Boonstra
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, Toronto, ON M1C 1A4, Canada; Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 3B2, Canada
| | - Pascale Sicotte
- Department of Anthropology & Archaeology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N 1N4, Canada; Department of Biology, Concordia University, Montreal, QC H3G 1M8, Canada
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Socio-sexual behaviors and fecal hormone metabolites but not age predict female aggressive interactions in Macaca arctoides. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-021-03118-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Association between stress and bilateral symmetrical alopecia in free-ranging Formosan macaques in Mt. Longevity, Taiwan. Sci Rep 2021; 11:11189. [PMID: 34045621 PMCID: PMC8160012 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-90725-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Since 2013, a high incidence of bilateral symmetrical alopecia has been observed in free-ranging Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) in Mt. Longevity, Taiwan. We hypothesized that stress induces alopecia in this population. To verify our hypothesis, we evaluated the histopathological characteristics of skin biopsy and used a validated enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for fecal glucocorticoid metabolite (FGM) analysis, which act as an indicator of stress experienced by the individual. Follicular densities were lower (2.1-3.0 mm2) in individuals with symmetrical alopecia than in those with normal hair conditions (4.7 mm2). Furthermore, anagen to catagen/telogen ratios were lower in individuals with alopecia (0-1.4) than in those with normal hair (4.0). The histopathological characteristics of alopecia were similar to those of telogen effluvium, which indicates that stress is one of the possible etiologies. On the basis of the analytical and biological validation of EIAs for FGM analysis, 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone was considered suitable for monitoring adrenocortical activity in both sexes of Formosan macaques. The mean concentrations (standard error; sample size) of 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone were 2.02 (0.17; n = 10) and 1.41 (0.10; n = 31) μg/g for individuals with and without alopecia, respectively. Furthermore, the results of logistic regression analysis show that 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (p = 0.012) concentration was positively associated with alopecia. Thus, stress was the most likely to trigger symmetrical alopecia in Formosan macaques in Mt. Longevity. Although stress can decrease the fitness of an individual, considering the population status of Formosan macaques in Taiwan is stable and alopecia was only observed in our study area, which is isolated from other populations, the impact on the total population of Formosan macaque in Taiwan is limited. Nonetheless, stress-induced immunosuppression and alopecia might affect the local abundance and increase zoonosis risk due to frequent human-macaque contact in Mt. Longevity. Future studies are suggested to focus on the causative factor of stress and the effects of stress and alopecia on the health and welfare in the Formosan macaques.
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Scheun J, Neller S, Bennett NC, Kemp LV, Ganswindt A. Endocrine correlates of gender and throat coloration in the southern ground-hornbill (Bucorvus leadbeateri). Integr Zool 2020; 16:189-201. [PMID: 32761760 DOI: 10.1111/1749-4877.12478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The southern ground-hornbill (SGH) is a cooperatively breeding bird endemic to eastern and southern Africa, but is endangered in its southern distributional range. The national conservation restoration program harvests redundant chicks for captive breeding and reintroduction; with sexing and social grouping of the species evaluated by throat-skin coloration, with adult males displaying a completely red color compared to dark blue within the red observed in adult females. However, recent findings indicate that dominant and subordinate adult males exhibit patches of blue throat-skin. To optimize SGH management practices, it is vital to determine the role of red and blue coloration, as well as the possible drivers thereof. As a prerequisite, an enzyme immunoassay for monitoring fecal androgen metabolite (fAM) concentrations in SGH was established. Following this, fresh fecal samples were collected from 78 SGH, of various demographics and origin, across 12 captive institutions, to determine whether fAM concentrations differ between blue (B), partially blue (sB), and fully red (R) throat-skin colored SGH. Furthermore, fAM concentrations were compared between males housed in different social groups of different age and sex classes. Individual median fAM concentrations of B, sB, and R adult males did not differ significantly but were considerably higher in B and sB males compared to R males. Social dynamics within captivity, for example, dominance, played no role as a driver of male gonadal activity or throat skin coloration. The results of the study indicate that androgens and apparent social dynamics are not primary determinants of throat coloration in male SGH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Scheun
- Department of Life and Consumer Sciences, University of South Africa, South Africa.,Biodiversity Research Services, National Zoological Gardens, South Africa.,Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Sophie Neller
- Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.,Mabula Ground Hornbill Project/ IUCN Hornbill Specialist Group, Bela-Bela, South Africa
| | - Nigel C Bennett
- Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Lucy V Kemp
- Mabula Ground Hornbill Project/ IUCN Hornbill Specialist Group, Bela-Bela, South Africa.,Department of Applied Behavioural Ecology & Ecosystem Research, University of South Africa, South Africa
| | - Andre Ganswindt
- Biodiversity Research Services, National Zoological Gardens, South Africa.,Mammal Research Institute, Department of Zoology and Entomology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.,Endocrine Research Laboratory, Department of Anatomy & Physiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, South Africa
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Rincon AV, Ostner J, Heistermann M, Deschner T. Measuring urinary cortisol and testosterone levels in male Barbary macaques: A comparison of EIA and LC-MS. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2019; 281:117-125. [PMID: 31145893 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2019.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2018] [Revised: 04/04/2019] [Accepted: 05/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The development of methods to quantify hormones from non-invasively collected samples such as urine or feces has facilitated endocrinology research on wild-living animals. To ensure that hormone measurements are biologically meaningful, method validations are strongly recommended for each new species or sample matrix. Our aim was to validate three commonly used enzyme immunoassays (EIA), one for analysis of cortisol and two for analysis of testosterone, to assess adrenocortical and gonadal endocrine activity, respectively, from the urine of male Barbary macaques. We compared EIA and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) results to determine if the EIA measurements truly reflect levels of the target hormone and to determine if antibody cross-reactivities with other steroids were potentially confounding results. Furthermore, we conducted a biological validation of testosterone to ensure that both EIA and LC-MS were able to capture physiologically meaningful differences in hormone levels. We found that cortisol measured by EIA correlated strongly with cortisol measured by LC-MS in both adult and immature males, without the need for deconjugation of steroids in the urine. Both testosterone EIAs correlated strongly with LC-MS in adult males, but only if steroids in the urine were deconjugated by enzymatic hydrolysis prior to analysis. However, in immature males, EIA and LC-MS results did not correlate significantly. Further correlation analyses suggest this is likely due to cross-reactivity of the testosterone antibodies with other adrenal steroids such as cortisol, DHEA, and likely others, which are present at much higher concentrations relative to testosterone in immature males. Testosterone levels were significantly higher in adult compared to immature males as measured by LC-MS but not as measured by EIA. Taken together, our results suggest that the testosterone EIAs are suitable to assess gonadal activity in adult but not immature males, and only if a hydrolysis of the urine is conducted prior to analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan V Rincon
- Department of Behavioral Ecology, Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach Institute for Zoology and Anthropology, University of Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany; Leibniz ScienceCampus Primate Cognition, Goettingen, Germany.
| | - Julia Ostner
- Department of Behavioral Ecology, Johann-Friedrich-Blumenbach Institute for Zoology and Anthropology, University of Goettingen, Goettingen, Germany; Leibniz ScienceCampus Primate Cognition, Goettingen, Germany; Research Group Social Evolution in Primates, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Michael Heistermann
- Endocrinology Laboratory, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Goettingen, Germany
| | - Tobias Deschner
- Department of Primatology, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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