Mapping Robots to Therapy and Educational Objectives for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Application of the international classification of functioning, disability, and health in autism and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A scoping review

LAY ABSTRACT

The International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) is a framework designed by the World Health Organization (WHO) to help different sectors, such as healthcare, social services, education, and policy, understand how people with health-related issues function (do the things they want to and need to do) in their daily lives. This framework has also been used to guide clinical practice and research in autism and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). To make it more practical, shorter versions of the ICF called Core Sets have been developed. We wanted to explore how the ICF and the ICF Core Sets have been used in research relating to autism and ADHD. We looked at the research that had been previously published on this topic by conducting a systematic search and review. Seventy-eight studies meeting our criteria were included in our review. Results show that the ICF has been applied in many ways across various contexts. However, most of the research has focused on autism, mainly involving children. The review highlights that although the ICF was used in some studies, the underlying philosophies of the framework were not always followed. The medical perspective still influenced the way research was done and interpreted. Nevertheless, using the ICF in the right way can help shift research on neurodevelopmental conditions like autism and ADHD toward a more holistic approach, moving away from solely focusing on medical aspects.

Assisted Robots in Therapies for Children with Autism in Early Childhood

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) have deficits that affect their social relationships, communication, and flexibility in reasoning. There are different types of treatment (pharmacological, educational, psychological, and rehabilitative). Currently, one way to address this problem is by using robotic systems to address the abilities that are altered in these children. The aim of this review will be to analyse the effectiveness of the incorporation of the different robotic systems currently existing in the treatment of children up to 10 years of age diagnosed with autism. A systematic review has been carried out in the PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Dialnet databases, with the following descriptors: child, autism, and robot. The search yielded 578 papers, and nine were selected after the application of the PRISMA guideline. The quality of the studies was analysed with the PEDRo scale, and only those with a score between four and six were selected. From this study, the conclusion is that the use of robots, in general, improves children's behaviour in the short term, but longer-term experiences are necessary to achieve more conclusive results.

Seeing through a robot's eyes: A cross-sectional exploratory study in developing a robotic screening technology for autism

The present exploratory cross-sectional case-control study sought to develop a reliable and scalable screening tool for autism using a social robot. The robot HUMANE, installed with computer vision and linked with recognition technology, detected the direction of eye gaze of children. Children aged 3-8 (M = 5.52; N = 199) participated, 87 of whom had been confirmed with autism, 55 of whom were suspected to have autism, and 57 of whom were not considered to cause any concern for having autism. Before a session, a human experimenter instructed HUMANE to narrate a story to a child. HUMANE prompted the child to return his/her eye gaze to the robot if the child looked away, and praised the child when it re-established its eye gaze quickly after a prompt. The reliability of eye gaze detection was checked across all pairs of human raters and HUMANE and reached 0.90, indicating excellent interrater agreement. Using the pre-specified reference standard (Autism Spectrum Quotient), the sensitivity and specificity of the index tests (i.e., the number of robot prompts and duration of inattentiveness) reached 0.88 or above and the Diagnostic Odds Ratios were beyond 190. These results show that social robots may detect atypical eye patterns, suggesting a potential future for screening autism using social robots.

AppraisalCloudPCT: A Computational Model of Emotions for Socially Interactive Robots for Autistic Rehabilitation

Computational models of emotions can not only improve the effectiveness and efficiency of human-robot interaction but also coordinate a robot to adapt to its environment better. When designing computational models of emotions for socially interactive robots, especially for robots for people with special needs such as autistic children, one should take into account the social and communicative characteristics of such groups of people. This article presents a novel computational model of emotions called AppraisalCloudPCT that is suitable for socially interactive robots that can be adopted in autistic rehabilitation which, to the best of our knowledge, is the first computational model of emotions built for robots that can satisfy the needs of a special group of people such as autistic children. To begin with, some fundamental and notable computational models of emotions (e.g., OCC, Scherer's appraisal theory, PAD) that have deep and profound influence on building some significant models (e.g., PRESENCE, iGrace, xEmotion) for socially interactive robots are revisited. Then, a comparative assessment between our AppraisalCloudPCT and other five significant models for socially interactive robots is conducted. Great efforts have been made in building our proposed model to meet all of the six criteria for comparison, by adopting the appraisal theories on emotions, perceptual control theory on emotions, a component model view of appraisal models, and cloud robotics. Details of how to implement our model in a socially interactive robot we developed for autistic rehabilitation are also elaborated in this article. Future studies should examine how our model performs in different robots and also in more interactive scenarios.

SD, Munera M, Casas D, Villa-Moreno A, Frizera-Neto A, Stoelen MF, Belpaeme T, Cifuentes CA. Do different robot appearances change emotion recognition in children with ASD?

Introduction

Socially Assistive Robotics has emerged as a potential tool for rehabilitating cognitive and developmental disorders in children with autism. Social robots found in the literature are often able to teach critical social skills, such as emotion recognition and physical interaction. Even though there are promising results in clinical studies, there is a lack of guidelines on selecting the appropriate robot and how to design and implement the child-robot interaction.

Methods

This work aims to evaluate the impacts of a social robot designed with three different appearances according to the results of a participatory design (PD) process with the community. A validation study in the emotion recognition task was carried out with 21 children with autism.

Results

Spectrum disorder results showed that robot-like appearances reached a higher percentage of children's attention and that participants performed better when recognizing simple emotions, such as happiness and sadness.

Discussion

This study offers empirical support for continuing research on using SAR to promote social interaction with children with ASD. Further long-term research will help to identify the differences between high and low-functioning children.

Important Preliminary Insights for Designing Successful Communication between a Robotic Learning Assistant and Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder in Germany

Early therapeutic intervention programs help children diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) to improve their socio-emotional and functional skills. To relieve the children’s caregivers while ensuring that the children are adequately supported in their training exercises, new technologies may offer suitable solutions. This study investigates the potential of a robotic learning assistant which is planned to monitor the children’s state of engagement and to intervene with appropriate motivational nudges when necessary. To analyze stakeholder requirements, interviews with parents as well as therapists of children with ASD were conducted. Besides a general positive attitude towards the usage of new technologies, we received some important insights for the design of the robot and its interaction with the children. One strongly accentuated aspect was the robot’s adequate and context-specific communication behavior, which we plan to address via an AI-based engagement detection system. Further aspects comprise for instance customizability, adaptability, and variability of the robot’s behavior, which should further be not too distracting while still being highly predictable.

Assistive Technology to Improve Collaboration in Children with ASD: State-of-the-Art and Future Challenges in the Smart Products Sector

Within the field of products for autism spectrum disorder, one of the main research areas is focused on the development of assistive technology. Mid and high-tech products integrate interactive and smart functions with multisensory reinforcements, making the user experience more intuitive, adaptable, and dynamic. These products have a very significant impact on improving the skills of children with autism, including collaboration and social skills, which are essential for the integration of these children into society and, therefore, their well-being. This work carried out an exhaustive analysis of the scientific literature, as well as market research and trends, and patent analysis to explore the state-of-the-art of assistive technology and smart products for children with ASD, specifically those aimed at improving social and communication skills. The results show a reduced availability of products that act as facilitators of the special needs of children with ASD, which is even more evident for products aimed at improving collaboration skills. Products that allow the participation of several users simultaneously through multi-user interfaces are required. On top of this, the trend toward virtual environments is leading to a loss of material aspects in the design that are essential for the development of these children.

Socially-Assistive Robots to Support Learning in Students on the Autism Spectrum: Investigating Educator Perspectives and a Pilot Trial of a Mobile Platform to Remove Barriers to Implementation

Technology offers educators tools that can tailor learning to students' learning styles and interests. Research into the use of socially-assistive robots as a learning support for children on the autism spectrum are showing promising results. However, to date, few schools have introduced these robots to support learning in students on the autism spectrum. This paper reports on a research project that investigated the barriers to implementing socially-assistive robot supported learning, and the expectations, perceived benefits and concerns of school teachers and therapists of students on the autism spectrum and adults on the autism spectrum. First, three focus groups were conducted with six adults on the autism spectrum, and 13 teachers and therapists of students from two autism-specific schools. During the focus groups, there was cautious optimism from participants about the value of socially-assistive robots for teaching support. While the data showed that participants were in favour of trialling socially-assistive robots in the classroom, they also raised several concerns and potential barriers to implementation, including the need for teacher training. In response to their concerns, the second part of the project focussed on developing a software platform and mobile application (app) to support the introduction of robots into autism-specific classrooms. The software platform and app were then trialled in two schools (n = 7 teachers and therapists). Results from focus groups indicated that participants believe socially-assistive robots could be useful for learning support, as the mobile app provides an easy to use tool to support preparing and conducting lessons that would motivate them to trial robots in the classroom.

Social Humanoid Robots for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Review of Modalities, Indications, and Pitfalls

Robot-assisted therapy (RAT) is a promising area of translational neuroscience for children with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). It has been widely demonstrated that this kind of advanced technological tool provides a reliable and efficient intervention for promoting social skills and communication in children with ASD. This type of treatment consists of a human-assisted social robot acting as an intervention mediator to increase competence and skills in children with ASD. Several social robots have been validated in the literature; however, an explicit technical comparison among devices has never been performed. For this reason, in this article, we provide an overview of the main commercial humanoid robots employed for ASD children with an emphasis on indications for use, pitfalls to be avoided, and recent advances. We conclude that, in the near future, a new generation of devices with high levels of mobility, availability, safety, and acceptability should be designed for improving the complex triadic interaction among teachers, children, and robots.

Design, Development, and a Pilot Study of a Low-Cost Robot for Child–Robot Interaction in Autism Interventions

Socially assistive robots are widely deployed in interventions with children on the autism spectrum, exploiting the benefits of this technology in social behavior intervention plans, while reducing their autistic behavior. Furthermore, innovations in modern technologies such as machine learning enhance these robots with great capabilities. Since the results of this implementation are promising, their total cost makes them unaffordable for some organizations while the needs are growing progressively. In this paper, a low-cost robot for autism interventions is proposed, benefiting from the advantages of machine learning and low-cost hardware. The mechanical design of the robot and the development of machine learning models are presented. The robot was evaluated by a small group of educators for children with ASD. The results of various model implementations, together with the design evaluation of the robot, are encouraging and indicate that this technology would be advantageous for deployment in child–robot interaction scenarios.

Reflecting the trends in the academic landscape of special education using probabilistic dynamic topic modeling

Purpose

Special education is the education segment that deals with the students facing hurdles in the traditional education system. Research data have evolved in the domain of special education due to scientific advances. The present study aims to employ text mining to extract the latent patterns from the scientific data.

Design/methodology/approach

This study examined the 12,781 Scopus-indexed titles, abstracts and keywords published from 1987 to 2021 through an integrated text-mining and topic modeling approach. It combines dynamic topic models with highly cited reviews of this domain. It facilitates the extraction of topic clusters and communities in the topic network.

Findings

This methodology discovered children’s communication and speech using gaming techniques, mental retardation, cost effect on infant birth, involvement of special education children and their families, assistive technology information for special education, syndrome epilepsy and the impact of group study on skill development peers or self as the hottest topic of research in this domain. In addition to finding research hotspots, it further explores annual topic proportion trends, topic correlations and intertopic research areas.

Originality/value

The results provide a comprehensive summary of the popularity of research topics in special education in the past 34 years, and the results can provide useful insights and implications, and it could be used as a guide for contributors in special education form a structured view of past research and plan future research directions.

A Trustworthy Robot Buddy for Primary School Children

Social robots hold potential for supporting children’s well-being in classrooms. However, it is unclear which robot features add to a trustworthy relationship between a child and a robot and whether social robots are just as able to reduce stress as traditional interventions, such as listening to classical music. We set up two experiments wherein children interacted with a robot in a real-life school environment. Our main results show that regardless of the robotic features tested (intonation, male/female voice, and humor) most children tend to trust a robot during their first interaction. Adding humor to the robots’ dialogue seems to have a negative impact on children’s trust, especially for girls and children without prior experience with robots. In comparing a classical music session with a social robot interaction, we found no significant differences. Both interventions were able to lower the stress levels of children, however, not significantly. Our results show the potential for robots to build trustworthy interactions with children and to lower children’s stress levels. Considering these results, we believe that social robots provide a new tool for children to make their feelings explicit, thereby enabling children to share negative experiences (such as bullying) which would otherwise stay unnoticed.

Potential Applications of Social Robots in Robot-Assisted Interventions for Social Anxiety

Social anxiety disorder or social phobia is a condition characterized by debilitating fear and avoidance of different social situations. We provide an overview of social anxiety and evidence-based behavioural and cognitive treatment approaches for this condition. However, treatment avoidance and attrition are high in this clinical population, which calls for innovative approaches, including computer-based interventions, that could minimize barriers to treatment and enhance treatment effectiveness. After reviewing existing assistive technologies for mental health interventions, we provide an overview of how social robots have been used in many clinical interventions. We then propose to integrate social robots in conventional behavioural and cognitive therapies for both children and adults who struggle with social anxiety. We categorize the different therapeutic roles that social robots can potentially play in activities rooted in conventional therapies for social anxiety and oriented towards symptom reduction, social skills development, and improvement in overall quality of life. We discuss possible applications of robots in this context through four scenarios. These scenarios are meant as ‘food for thought’ for the research community which we hope will inspire future research. We discuss risks and concerns for using social robots in clinical practice. This article concludes by highlighting the potential advantages as well as limitations of integrating social robots in conventional interventions to improve accessibility and standard of care as well as outlining future steps in relation to this research direction. Clearly recognizing the need for future empirical work in this area, we propose that social robots may be an effective component in robot-assisted interventions for social anxiety, not replacing, but complementing the work of clinicians. We hope that this article will spark new research, and research collaborations in the highly interdisciplinary field of robot-assisted interventions for social anxiety.

Robotic Uses in Pediatric Care: A Comprehensive Review

PROBLEM

Advances in technology have made robotics acceptable in healthcare and medical environments. The aim of this literature review was to examine how the pediatric population can benefit from robotic therapy and assistance that are currently available or being developed in diverse settings.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA

English language full-text publications focusing on pediatric robotic therapy studies for infants and children under the age of 17 indexed in PubMed and CINAHL and published from 2008 to 2018.

SAMPLE

A total of 272 articles were identified, 69 full-text articles were retrieved and assessed for eligibility, and 21 studies were finally used in the literature review.

RESULTS

From 21 studies, all studies reviewed showed that children benefited from robotic therapies were 1) responsive to the therapies and 2) favored robot's presence since the robotic systems increased their attention and ability to participate in tasks. Due to small sample size, results were statistically inconclusive.

CONCLUSIONS

We identified positive findings, where utilizing pediatric robots played vital roles in assisting and enhancing current pediatric and NICU treatments. Overall, our findings suggested that more clinical trials would be essential, but the uses of robots may contribute to the future advancement in pediatric and neonatal healthcare.

IMPLICATIONS

These review and analysis can be used to inform healthcare environments where there is a room for applying robotic assistance, although most studies required further testing with larger sample size to validate their results. This suggests the need for further research for robotics in pediatric and neonatal healthcare.

Are social robots ready yet to be used in care and therapy of autism spectrum disorder: A systematic review of randomized controlled trials

Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder that affects the everyday life of people who have this lifelong condition. Robots hold great promise for uplifting therapy and care of the affected population. We searched Scopus, Medline, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and PubMed databases for randomized controlled trials that had evaluated robot use in the therapy of people with autism, to see how effective social robots have been incorporated in autism care. Out of 240 papers initially identified, 19 satisfied the inclusion criteria and were fully evaluated. Overall, 10 different robots were utilized in the trials, out of which, four were non-humanoids. The number of papers with positive results for using robots on the main and secondary parameters was 11 and 5, respectively. Three papers reported that robot groups did not achieve better results than others. Robots in the papers included here were mainly added as the "entertainment agent" to elicit greater engagement from the participants, which is understandable, as robots at this stage might not be ready yet to deliver high-end care.

A map of assistive technology educative instruments in neurodevelopmental disorders

PURPOSE

The use of assistive technology in mental health has gained an increased interest over the last decades. A growing number of studies have investigated diverse applications of technological interventions for rehabilitation of children with neurodevelopmental disorders. This article presents a map of the technological devises applied as therapeutic instruments.

METHODS

The research question of this review was which technological applications could be referred as an educational instrument for the management of children with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), intellectual disability and attention deficit disorder. The articles included in this review were collected after a structured literature search in electronic databases using keywords such as "Assistive Technology", "technology devices", "robots", "Autism Disorder", "Intellectual Disabilities" and "Mental Retardation".

RESULTS

Assistive technology with the most up-to-date devices and applications helps children with intellectual disability and ASDs enhance cognitive skills and improve challenging behaviour, social communication and academic performance. Different technological tools are used to foster attention span and improve time management skills in children with attention deficit syndrome.

CONCLUSION

It is important that therapists choose the instrument that will offer the best approach towards the goal that is set. Future research could provide evidence based data, evaluating each specific methodology and tailoring each therapeutic approach specifically to a case.IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATIONTechnology creates environments in which children could practice and learn in a safer, more predictable and pleasant manner.Assistive Technologies provide the opportunity for better acquisition of selfhelp skills and the power of social interaction for individuals with disabilities.By mapping out the wide array of Assistive Technology that is available today, future applications for rehabilitation of children with neurodevelopmental disorders could help extend therapeutic strategies out of the clinical and school settings and into the home, thereby incorporating the family and emphasizing personalization.Future studies could develop a model for the choice and use of each tool, tailoring each therapeutic approach specifically to each case.

The Effects of Long-Term Child–Robot Interaction on the Attention and the Engagement of Children with Autism

Using a social robot has been proven to have multiple benefits for the training of children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). However, there is no clarity on the impact of the interaction quality between a child with ASD and a robot on the effectiveness of the therapy. Previous research showed that the use of a robot in Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT) could be an effective treatment component in diminishing ASD-related symptoms. Further analyzing the data from a randomized controlled trial of PRT treatment, we looked at the long-term effects of child–robot game interactions to see whether the interaction quality changes over time. The attention and the engagement of six children were measured through the observation of non-verbal behavior at three different stages in the treatment that took 20 sessions per child. The gaze and arm/hand behavior of the participants towards the robot, the game, and other present humans were observed. The analysis showed no significant decrease in the attention and the engagement of the children towards the robot and the game. However, the attention and engagement toward the parents of the children increased. We conclude that the main result of sustained attention and engagement with the robot is due to the personalization of the games to meet the specific needs of this user group. These specific needs are met through inclusion of variability to the level of development and personal choice of each participating child. We see the additional finding of increased attention towards the parents as especially positive since the children are expected to improve in human–human interaction as a result of this treatment.

An Open-Source Social Robot Based on Compliant Soft Robotics for Therapy with Children with ASD

Therapy with robotic tools is a promising way to help improve verbal and nonverbal communication in children. The robotic tools are able to increase aspects such as eye contact and the ability to follow instructions and to empathize with others. This work presents the design methodology, development, and experimental validation of a novel social robot based on CompliAnt SofT Robotics called the CASTOR robot, which intends to be used as an open-source platform for the long-term therapy of children with autism spectrum disorder (CwASD). CASTOR integrates the concepts of soft actuators and compliant mechanisms to create a replicable robotic platform aimed at real therapy scenarios involving physical interaction between the children and the robot. The validation shows promising results in terms of robustness and the safety of the user and robot. Likewise, mechanical tests assess the robot’s response to blocking conditions for two critical modules (i.e., neck and arm) in interaction scenarios. Future works should focus on the validation of the robot’s effectiveness in the therapy of CwASD.

Adherence and acceptability of a robot-assisted Pivotal Response Treatment protocol for children with autism spectrum disorder

The aim of this study is to present a robot-assisted therapy protocol for children with ASD based on the current state-of-the-art in both ASD intervention research and robotics research, and critically evaluate its adherence and acceptability based on child as well as parent ratings. The robot-assisted therapy was designed based on motivational components of Pivotal Response Treatment (PRT), a highly promising and feasible intervention focused at training “pivotal” (key) areas such as motivation for social interaction and self-initiations, with the goal of establishing collateral gains in untargeted areas of functioning and development, affected by autism spectrum disorders. Overall, children (3–8 y) could adhere to the robot-assisted therapy protocol (Mean percentage of treatment adherence 85.5%), showed positive affect ratings after therapy sessions (positive in 86.6% of sessions) and high robot likability scores (high in 79.4% of sessions). Positive likability ratings were mainly given by school-aged children (H(1) = 7.91, p = .005) and related to the movements, speech and game scenarios of the robot. Parent ratings on the added value of the robot were mainly positive (Mean of 84.8 on 0–100 scale), while lower parent ratings were related to inflexibility of robot behaviour.

ICT and autism care: state of the art

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Over the past 10 years, the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) has increased in regard to the treatment of individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). ICT support mechanisms (e.g. computers, laptops, robots) are particularly attractive and are adapted to children with ASD. In addition, ICT algorithms can offer new perspectives for clinicians, outside direct apps or gaming proposals. Here, we will focus on the use of serious games and robots because of their attractiveness and their value in working on social skills.

RECENT FINDINGS

The latest knowledge regarding the use of ICT in the forms of serious games and robotics applied to individuals with ASD shows that the field of serious games has already achieved interesting and promising results, although the clinical validations are not always complete. In the field of robotics, there are still many limitations on the use of ICT (e.g. most interaction are similar to the wizard of Oz), and questions remain concerning their eventual effectiveness.

SUMMARY

To describe the implications of the findings for clinical practice or research, we describe two large projects, namely, JEMImE and Michelangelo, as examples of current studies that are aimed at enhancing social skills in children with ASD by including novel algorithms with clinical insights in robots or serious games.

Roles, Strengths and Challenges of Using Robots in Interventions for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

The aim of this research was to study roles, strengths and challenges of robot-mediated interventions using robot KASPAR for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Twelve focus group sessions were organized in which 70 ASD care and/or education professionals participated. Six roles for KASPAR were identified: provoker, reinforcer, trainer, mediator, prompter, and diagnostic information provider. Strengths of KASPAR are related to personalisation possibilities, its playfulness, the action-reaction principle, its neutral expression, consistent and repetitive application of actions, possibilities to vary behaviour in a controlled manner and having an extra hand. Challenges of working with KASPAR were: limited reaction possibilities, possibility of children being scared of KASPAR, difficulties with generalisation or transfer and finally potential dependence on KASPAR.

Service robots: value co-creation and co-destruction in elderly care networks

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to investigate the potential roles for service robots (i.e. socially assistive robots) in value networks of elderly care. Taking an elderly person’s perspective, it defines robot roles according to their value co-creating/destroying potential for the elderly user (i.e. focal actor), while acknowledging consequences for a network of users around the elderly (i.e. network actors).

Design/methodology/approach

This qualitative, interpretative study employs in-depth phenomenographic interviews, supported by generative cards activities (i.e. Contextual Value Network Mapping), to elicit an elderly person’s tacit knowledge and anticipate the effects of introducing an automated actor on institutionalized value co-creation practices.

Findings

The proposed typology identifies six roles of socially assistive robots in an elderly person’s value network (enabler, intruder, ally, replacement, extended self, and deactivator) and links them to three health-supporting functions by robots: safeguarding, social contact, and cognitive support.

Research limitations/implications

Elderly people have notable expectations about the inclusion of a socially assistive robot as a new actor in their value networks. The identified robot roles inform service scholars and managers about both the value co-destruction potential that needs to be avoided through careful designs and the value co-creation potential that should be leveraged.

Originality/value

Using network-conscious phenomenographic interviews before the introduction of a novel value proposition sheds new light on the shifting value co-creation interplay among value network actors (i.e. elderly people, formal and informal caregivers). The value co-creation/destruction potential of socially assistive robots and their corresponding roles in care-based value networks offer insights for the design of meaningful robotic technology and its introduction into the existing service networks.

How to Implement Robots in Interventions for Children with Autism? A Co-creation Study Involving People with Autism, Parents and Professionals

The aim of this study was to gain insight into how robots can be practically implemented into current education and therapy interventions for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). This qualitative study included focus groups and co-creation sessions. 73 Participants (professionals and adults with ASD) took part in 13 focus groups to elicit requirements for robot assisted interventions. Additionally, 22 participants (professionals, parents of children with ASD and adults with ASD) generated ideas for interventions using robot KASPAR in three co-creation sessions. This study resulted in: an overview of requirements concerning the robot, end-user, environment and practical implementation; a template to systematically describe robot interventions in general and for KASPAR in particular; and finally new interventions.

What does the literature say about using robots on children with disabilities?

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is to examine the extent and type of robots used for the rehabilitation and education of children and young people with CP and ASD and the associated outcomes.

METHODS

The scholarly literature was systematically searched and analyzed. Articles were included if they reported the results of robots used or intended to be used for the rehabilitation and education of children and young people with CP and ASD during play and educative and social interaction activities.

RESULTS

We found 15 robotic systems reported in 34 studies that provided a low level of evidence. The outcomes were mainly for children with ASD interaction and who had a reduction in autistic behaviour, and for CP cognitive development, learning, and play.

CONCLUSION

More research is needed in this area using designs that provide higher validity. A centred design approach is needed for developing new low-cost robots for this population. Implications for rehabilitation In spite of the potential of robots to promote development in children with ASD and CP, the limited available evidence requires researchers to conduct studies with higher validity. The low level of evidence plus the need for specialized technical support should be considered critical factors before making the decision to purchase robots for use in treatment for children with CP and ASD. A user-entered design approach would increase the chances of success for robots to improve functional, learning, and educative outcomes in children with ASD and CP. We recommend that developers use this approach. The participation of interdisciplinary teams in the design, development, and implementation of new robotic systems is of extra value. We recommend the design and development of low-cost robotic systems to make robots more affordable.

Perception of dental visit pictures in children with autism spectrum disorder and their caretakers: A qualitative study

OBJECTIVES

One of the most common ways to communicate to children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is by using pictures. This study was conducted to identify the easiest perception of dental visit by children with ASD when using pictures as printed photographs.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Purposive sampling was used to recruit participants from a school for children with special needs in south Jakarta. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 autistic children aged 13-17 years, 2 parents, and 2 teachers. Open-ended questions were asked to participants regarding pictures of dental clinic personnel and activity. Conversations were noted, tape recorded, and then categorized to extract a theme. The data were analyzed using Dedoose mixed methods software.

RESULTS

Most respondents showed a positive perception of the dental visit pictures. Many of the pictures were easily recognized by children with ASD, but some failed to be understood. Caretakers not only gave their perception but also recommendations for improvement of the pictures.

CONCLUSIONS

Dental visit pictures could be used as useful communication tools for children with ASD. Based on the results, the pictures related to dental visit were generally easy to understand, however, some needed correction to be comprehensible.