Biosynthesis of TiO2 Nanoparticles Using Edible Mushroom (Pleurotus djamor) Extract: Mosquito Larvicidal, Histopathological, Antibacterial and Anticancer Effect

Synthesis and characterization of Hypsizygus ulmarius extract mediated silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and test their potentiality on antimicrobial and anticancer effects

The prime aim of this research is to discover new, eco-friendly approaches to reducing agents for manufacturing silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) from fresh fruiting bodies of the edible mushroom Hypsizygus ulmarius (Hu). The confirmation of Hu-mediated AgNPs has been characterized by UV visible spectroscopy, XRD, FTIR, SEM with EDX, HRTEM, AFM, PSA, Zeta poetical and GCMS analysis. The absorption peak of Hu-AgNPs at 430 nm has been confirmed by UV-visible spectroscopy analysis. The findings of the particle size study show that AgNPs have a size distribution with an average of 20 nm. The Zeta potential of NPs reveals a significant build-up of negative charges on their surface. The additional hydrate layers that occurred at the surface of AgNPs are shown in the HR-TEM morphology images. The antibacterial activity results showed that Hu-AgNPs were highly effective against both bacterial pathogens, with gram-positive (+) and gram-negative (-) pathogens having a moderate inhibition effect on K. pneumoniae (5.3 ± 0.3 mm), E. coli (5.3 ± 0.1), and S. aureus (5.2 ± 0.3 mm). Hu-AgNPs (IC50 of 50.78 μg/mL) were found to have dose-dependent cytotoxic action against human lung cancer cell lines (A549). Inhibited cell viability by up to 64.31% after 24 h of treatment. To the best of our knowledge, this is the hand information on the myco-synthesis of AgNPs from the H. ulmarius mushroom extract and the results suggest that it can an excellent source for developing a multipurpose and eco-friendly nano product in future.

Updates on Biogenic Metallic and Metal Oxide Nanoparticles: Therapy, Drug Delivery and Cytotoxicity

The ambition to combat the issues affecting the environment and human health triggers the development of biosynthesis that incorporates the production of natural compounds by living organisms via eco-friendly nano assembly. Biosynthesized nanoparticles (NPs) have various pharmaceutical applications, such as tumoricidal, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobials, antiviral, etc. When combined, bio-nanotechnology and drug delivery give rise to the development of various pharmaceutics with site-specific biomedical applications. In this review, we have attempted to summarize in brief the types of renewable biological systems used for the biosynthesis of metallic and metal oxide NPs and the vital contribution of biogenic NPs as pharmaceutics and drug carriers simultaneously. The biosystem used for nano assembly further affects the morphology, size, shape, and structure of the produced nanomaterial. The toxicity of the biogenic NPs, because of their pharmacokinetic behavior in vitro and in vivo, is also discussed, together with some recent achievements towards enhanced biocompatibility, bioavailability, and reduced side effects. Because of the large biodiversity, the potential biomedical application of metal NPs produced via natural extracts in biogenic nanomedicine is yet to be explored.

Diversity of Mycogenic Oxide and Chalcogenide Nanoparticles: A Review

Oxide and chalcogenide nanoparticles have great potential for use in biomedicine, engineering, agriculture, environmental protection, and other research fields. The myco-synthesis of nanoparticles with fungal cultures, their metabolites, culture liquids, and mycelial and fruit body extracts is simple, cheap and environmentally friendly. The characteristics of nanoparticles, including their size, shape, homogeneity, stability, physical properties and biological activity, can be tuned by changing the myco-synthesis conditions. This review summarizes the data on the diversity of oxide and chalcogenide nanoparticles produced by various fungal species under different experimental conditions.

Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, Cytotoxicity and DNA Protective Properties of the Pink Oyster Mushroom, Pleurotus djamor (Agaricomycetes)

In this study, pink oyster mushroom Pleurotus djamor was cultivated using wheat straw (WS), quinoa stalk (QS), and their mixtures (WS-QS (1:1)) as substrate and evaluated in terms of antimicrobial, antioxidant, cytotoxicity, and DNA protective effects. Gram-positive and Gram-negative pathogen bacteria (Bacillus subtilis, Proteus vulgaris, Streptococcus mutans, Salmonella typhi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Escherichia coli), dermatophyte (Trichophyton sp.) and yeast (Candida tropicalis) were used in the study. It was found to be very active against all bacteria (except S. mutans and S. typhi), and dermatophyte when compared to the control groups (8.7-33.3 mm), but low against C. tropicalis. It was seen that the best total antioxidant assay (TAS) value was 2.05 mmol/L on WS-QS (1:1). Depend on, it was determined that the total oxidant assay (TOS) value (5.26 μmol/L) in the same compost was lower than the others, and also the scavenging effect of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH) was higher on WS at 25 mg/mL (84.20%). The methanol extract on WS at a concentration of 400 μg/mL, significantly reduced the percentage of viability in the human breast cancer (MDA-MB-231) cell line (2.2%). The methanol extracts on WS and QS medium were found to inhibit DNA damage induced by UV radiation and H2O2 at a concentration of 25 mg/mL. These results showed that pink oyster mushroom has benefits such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, cytotoxic, and DNA protective effects.

Mycosynthesis of Metal-Containing Nanoparticles-Synthesis by Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes and Their Application

Fungi contain species with a plethora of ways of adapting to life in nature. Consequently, they produce large amounts of diverse biomolecules that can be generated on a large scale and in an affordable manner. This makes fungi an attractive alternative for many biotechnological processes. Ascomycetes and basidiomycetes are the most commonly used fungi for synthesis of metal-containing nanoparticles (NPs). The advantages of NPs created by fungi include the use of non-toxic fungus-produced biochemicals, energy efficiency, ambient temperature, pressure conditions, and the ability to control and tune the crystallinity, shape, and size of the NPs. Furthermore, the presence of biomolecules might serve a dual function as agents in NP formation and also capping that can tailor the (bio)activity of subsequent NPs. This review summarizes and reviews the synthesis of different metal, metal oxide, metal sulfide, and other metal-based NPs mediated by reactive media derived from various species. The phyla ascomycetes and basidiomycetes are presented separately. Moreover, the practical application of NP mycosynthesis, particularly in the fields of biomedicine, catalysis, biosensing, mosquito control, and precision agriculture as nanofertilizers and nanopesticides, has been studied so far. Finally, an outlook is provided, and future recommendations are proposed with an emphasis on the areas where mycosynthesized NPs have greater potential than NPs synthesized using physicochemical approaches. A deeper investigation of the mechanisms of NP formation in fungi-based media is needed, as is a focus on the transfer of NP mycosynthesis from the laboratory to large-scale production and application.

Biogenic Silver Nanoparticles from Two Varieties of Agaricus bisporus and Their Antibacterial Activity

Agaricus bisporus, the most widely cultivated mushroom, is safe to eat and enriched with protein and secondary metabolites. We prepared silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) from two varieties of A. bisporus and tested their antibacterial activity The synthesized AgNPs were initially confirmed by UV-Vis spectroscopy peaks at 420 and 430 nm for white and brown mushrooms AgNPs, respectively. AgNPs were further characterized by zeta sizer, transmission electronic microscopy (TEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) prior to antibacterial activity by the well diffusion method against six bacterial strains which include Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermis, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. TEM results revealed a spherical shape with an average diameter of about 11 nm in the white mushroom extract and 5 nm in the brown mushroom extract. The presence of elemental silver in the prepared AgNPs was confirmed by EDS. The IR spectrum of the extract confirmed the presence of phenols, flavonoids, carboxylic, or amide groups which aided in the reduction and capping of synthesized AgNPs. The AgNPs from both extracts showed almost the same results; however, nanoparticles prepared from brown mushrooms were smaller in size with strong antibacterial activity.

Combination of Paraconiothyrium brasiliense fabricated titanium dioxide nanoparticle and antibiotics enhanced antibacterial and antibiofilm properties: A toxicity evaluation

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) causes global consequences through increased mortality and economic loss. Antimicrobial drugs including nanomaterials are an emerging environmental impact. Hence, this work aimed to synthesize and characterize the titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂ NPs) using the aqueous extract of endophytic fungus Paraconiothyrium brasiliense (Pb) for enhancing the antibacterial efficiency of existing standard antibiotics at minimum concentration. The FTIR and XRD results confirmed the capping of functional molecules and the crystalline nature of Pb-TiO2 NPs. The spherical-shaped TiO2 NPs with the size of 57.39 ± 13.65 nm were found in TEM analysis. The average hydrodynamic size (68.43 ± 1.49 d. nm) and the zeta potential (-19.6 ± 1.49 mV) was confirmed the stability of Pb-TiO2 NPs. Antibacterial studies revealed that bare Pb-TiO2 NPs (20 μg/mL) did not exhibit significant antibacterial activity while combination of TCH + Pb-TiO2 NPs considerably increased the inhibition of E. coli biofilm evidenced by CLSM and SEM analysis. Further, Pb-TiO₂ NPs (100 μg/mL) were found to be moderately toxic to cell line (NIH3T3), red blood cells (RBC), and egg embryos. Hence, this study concluded that <50 μg/mL of TiO₂ NPs can be mixed with antibiotics for enhanced antibacterial application thereby minimizing the AMR and the environmental toxicity.

Green Biotechnology of Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus L.): A Sustainable Strategy for Myco-Remediation and Bio-Fermentation

The field of biotechnology presents us with a great chance to use many organisms, such as mushrooms, to find suitable solutions for issues that include the accumulation of agro-wastes in the environment. The green biotechnology of mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus L.) includes the myco-remediation of polluted soil and water as well as bio-fermentation. The circular economy approach could be effectively achieved by using oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus L.), of which the substrate of their cultivation is considered as a vital source for producing biofertilizers, animal feeds, bioenergy, and bio-remediators. Spent mushroom substrate is also considered a crucial source for many applications, including the production of enzymes (e.g., manganese peroxidase, laccase, and lignin peroxidase) and bioethanol. The sustainable management of agro-industrial wastes (e.g., plant-based foods, animal-based foods, and non-food industries) could reduce, reuse and recycle using oyster mushrooms. This review aims to focus on the biotechnological applications of the oyster mushroom (P. ostreatus L.) concerning the field of the myco-remediation of pollutants and the bio-fermentation of agro-industrial wastes as a sustainable approach to environmental protection. This study can open new windows onto the green synthesis of metal-nanoparticles, such as nano-silver, nano-TiO2 and nano-ZnO. More investigations are needed concerning the new biotechnological approaches.

Microbe-Mediated Biosynthesis of Nanoparticles: Applications and Future Prospects

Nanotechnology is the science of nano-sized particles/structures (~100 nm) having a high surface-to-volume ratio that can modulate the physical, chemical and biological properties of the chemical compositions. In last few decades, nanoscience has attracted the attention of the scientific community worldwide due to its potential uses in the pharmacy, medical diagnostics and disease treatment, energy, electronics, agriculture, chemical and space industries. The properties of nanoparticles (NPs) are size and shape dependent. These characteristic features of nanoparticles can be explored for various other applications such as computer transistors, chemical sensors, electrometers, memory schemes, reusable catalysts, biosensing, antimicrobial activity, nanocomposites, medical imaging, tumor detection and drug delivery. Therefore, synthesizing nanoparticles of desired size, structure, monodispersity and morphology is crucial for the aforementioned applications. Recent advancements in nanotechnology aim at the synthesis of nanoparticles/materials using reliable, innoxious and novel ecofriendly techniques. In contrast to the traditional methods, the biosynthesis of nanoparticles of a desired nature and structure using the microbial machinery is not only quicker and safer but more environmentally friendly. Various microbes, including bacteria, actinobacteria, fungi, yeast, microalgae and viruses, have recently been explored for the synthesis of metal, metal oxide and other important NPs through intracellular and extracellular processes. Some bacteria and microalgae possess specific potential to fabricate distinctive nanomaterials such as exopolysaccharides, nanocellulose, nanoplates and nanowires. Moreover, their ability to synthesize nanoparticles can be enhanced using genetic engineering approaches. Thus, the use of microorganisms for synthesis of nanoparticles is unique and has a promising future. The present review provides explicit information on different strategies for the synthesis of nanoparticles using microbial cells; their applications in bioremediation, agriculture, medicine and diagnostics; and their future prospects.

Potential Usage of Edible Mushrooms and Their Residues to Retrieve Valuable Supplies for Industrial Applications

Currently, the food and agricultural sectors are concerned about environmental problems caused by raw material waste, and they are looking for strategies to reduce the growing amount of waste disposal. Now, approaches are being explored that could increment and provide value-added products from agricultural waste to contribute to the circular economy and environmental protection. Edible mushrooms have been globally appreciated for their medicinal properties and nutritional value, but during the mushroom production process nearly one-fifth of the mushroom gets wasted. Therefore, improper disposal of mushrooms and untreated residues can cause fungal disease. The residues of edible mushrooms, being rich in sterols, vitamin D2, amino acids, and polysaccharides, among others, makes it underutilized waste. Most of the published literature has primarily focused on the isolation of bioactive components of these edible mushrooms; however, utilization of waste or edible mushrooms themselves, for the production of value-added products, has remained an overlooked area. Waste of edible mushrooms also represents a disposal problem, but they are a rich source of important compounds, owing to their nutritional and functional properties. Researchers have started exploiting edible mushroom by-products/waste for value-added goods with applications in diverse fields. Bioactive compounds obtained from edible mushrooms are being used in media production and skincare formulations. Furthermore, diverse applications from edible mushrooms are also being explored, including the synthesis of biosorbent, biochar, edible films/coating, probiotics, nanoparticles and cosmetic products. The primary intent of this review is to summarize the information related to edible mushrooms and their valorization in developing value-added products with industrial applications.

Pleurotus Macrofungi-Assisted Nanoparticle Synthesis and Its Potential Applications: A Review

Research and innovation in nanoparticles (NPs) synthesis derived from biomaterials have gained much attention due to their unique characteristics, such as low-cost, easy synthesis methods, high water solubility, and eco-friendly nature. NPs derived from macrofungi, including various mushroom species, such as Agaricus bisporus, Pleurotus spp., Lentinus spp., and Ganoderma spp. are well known to possess high nutritional, immune-modulatory, antimicrobial (antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral), antioxidant, and anticancerous properties. Fungi have intracellular metal uptake ability and maximum wall binding capacity; because of which, they have high metal tolerance and bioaccumulation ability. Primarily, two methods have been comprehended in the literature to synthesize metal NPs from macrofungi, i.e., the intracellular method, which refers to NP synthesis inside fungal cells by transportation of ions in the presence of enzymes; and the extracellular method, which refers to the treatment of fungal biomolecules aqueous filtrate with a metal precursor. Pleurotus derived metal NPs are known to inhibit the growth of numerous foodborne pathogenic bacteria and fungi. To the best of our knowledge, there is no such review article reported in the literature describing the synthesis and complete application and mechanism of NPs derived from macrofungi. Herein, we intend to summarize the progressive research on macrofungi derived NPs regarding their synthesis as well as applications in the area of antimicrobial (antibacterial & antifungal), anticancer, antioxidant, catalytic and food preservation. Additionally, the challenges associated with NPs synthesis will also be discussed.