1
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Westeen EP, Escalona M, Holding ML, Beraut E, Fairbairn C, Marimuthu MPA, Nguyen O, Perri R, Fisher RN, Toffelmier E, Shaffer HB, Wang IJ. A genome assembly for the southern Pacific rattlesnake, Crotalus oreganus helleri, in the western rattlesnake species complex. J Hered 2023; 114:681-689. [PMID: 37493092 PMCID: PMC10650947 DOI: 10.1093/jhered/esad045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 07/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Rattlesnakes play important roles in their ecosystems by regulating prey populations, are involved in complex coevolutionary dynamics with their prey, and exhibit a variety of unusual adaptations, including maternal care, heat-sensing pit organs, hinged fangs, and medically-significant venoms. The western rattlesnake (Crotalus oreganus) is one of the widest ranging rattlesnake species, with a distribution from British Columbia, where it is listed as threatened, to Baja California and east across the Great Basin to western Wyoming, Colorado and New Mexico. Here, we report a new reference genome assembly for one of six currently recognized subspecies, C. oreganus helleri, as part of the California Conservation Genomics Project (CCGP). Consistent with the reference genomic sequencing strategy of the CCGP, we used Pacific Biosciences HiFi long reads and Hi-C chromatin-proximity sequencing technology to produce a de novo assembled genome. The assembly comprises a total of 698 scaffolds spanning 1,564,812,557 base pairs, has a contig N50 of 64.7 Mb, a scaffold N50 of 110.8 Mb, and BUSCO complete score of 90.5%. This reference genome will be valuable for studies on the genomic basis of venom evolution and variation within Crotalus, in resolving the taxonomy of C. oreganus and its relatives, and for the conservation and management of rattlesnakes in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin P Westeen
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, United States
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, United States
| | - Merly Escalona
- Department of Biomolecular Engineering, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, United States
| | - Matthew L Holding
- Life Sciences Institute, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States
| | - Eric Beraut
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, United States
| | - Colin Fairbairn
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, United States
| | - Mohan P A Marimuthu
- DNA Technologies and Expression Analysis Core Laboratory, Genome Center, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, United States
| | - Oanh Nguyen
- DNA Technologies and Expression Analysis Core Laboratory, Genome Center, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, United States
| | - Ralph Perri
- 1001 Foothill Drive, Fillmore, CA, 93015, United States
| | - Robert N Fisher
- U.S. Geological Survey, Western Ecological Research Center, San Diego, CA, 92101, United States
| | - Erin Toffelmier
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States
- La Kretz Center for California Conservation Science, Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States
| | - H Bradley Shaffer
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States
- La Kretz Center for California Conservation Science, Institute of the Environment and Sustainability, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, United States
| | - Ian J Wang
- Department of Environmental Science, Policy, and Management, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, United States
- Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, United States
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2
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Sunagar K, Khochare S, Jaglan A, Senthil S, Suranse V. Stings on wings: Proteotranscriptomic and biochemical profiling of the lesser banded hornet ( Vespa affinis) venom. Front Mol Biosci 2022; 9:1066793. [PMID: 36601583 PMCID: PMC9806352 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2022.1066793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Distinct animal lineages have convergently recruited venoms as weaponry for prey capture, anti-predator defence, conspecific competition, or a combination thereof. Most studies, however, have been primarily confined to a narrow taxonomic breadth. The venoms of cone snails, snakes, spiders and scorpions remain particularly well-investigated. Much less explored are the venoms of wasps (Order: Hymenoptera) that are infamous for causing excruciating and throbbing pain, justifying their apex position on Schmidt's pain index, including some that are rated four on four. For example, the lesser banded wasp (V. affinis) is clinically important yet has only been the subject of a few studies, despite being commonly found across tropical and subtropical Asia. Stings from these wasps, especially from multiple individuals of a nest, often lead to clinically severe manifestations, including mastocytosis, myasthenia gravis, optic neuropathy, and life-threatening pathologies such as myocardial infarction and organ failure. However, their venom composition and activity remain unexplored in the Indian subcontinent. Here, we report the proteomic composition, transcriptomic profile, and biochemical and pharmacological activities of V. affinis venom from southern India. Our findings suggest that wasp venoms are rich in diverse toxins that facilitate antipredator defence. Biochemical and pharmacological assessments reveal that these toxins can exhibit significantly higher activities than their homologues in medically important snakes. Their ability to exert potent effects on diverse molecular targets makes them a treasure trove for discovering life-saving therapeutics. Fascinatingly, wasp venoms, being evolutionarily ancient, exhibit a greater degree of compositional and sequence conservation across very distant populations/species, which contrasts with the patterns of venom evolution observed in evolutionarily younger lineages, such as advanced snakes and cone snails.
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3
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Schield DR, Perry BW, Adams RH, Holding ML, Nikolakis ZL, Gopalan SS, Smith CF, Parker JM, Meik JM, DeGiorgio M, Mackessy SP, Castoe TA. The roles of balancing selection and recombination in the evolution of rattlesnake venom. Nat Ecol Evol 2022; 6:1367-1380. [PMID: 35851850 PMCID: PMC9888523 DOI: 10.1038/s41559-022-01829-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The origin of snake venom involved duplication and recruitment of non-venom genes into venom systems. Several studies have predicted that directional positive selection has governed this process. Venom composition varies substantially across snake species and venom phenotypes are locally adapted to prey, leading to coevolutionary interactions between predator and prey. Venom origins and contemporary snake venom evolution may therefore be driven by fundamentally different selection regimes, yet investigations of population-level patterns of selection have been limited. Here, we use whole-genome data from 68 rattlesnakes to test hypotheses about the factors that drive genomic diversity and differentiation in major venom gene regions. We show that selection has resulted in long-term maintenance of genetic diversity within and between species in multiple venom gene families. Our findings are inconsistent with a dominant role of directional positive selection and instead support a role of long-term balancing selection in shaping venom evolution. We also detect rapid decay of linkage disequilibrium due to high recombination rates in venom regions, suggesting that venom genes have reduced selective interference with nearby loci, including other venom paralogues. Our results provide an example of long-term balancing selection that drives trans-species polymorphism and help to explain how snake venom keeps pace with prey resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drew R Schield
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA.
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA.
| | - Blair W Perry
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA
| | - Richard H Adams
- Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Georgia College and State University, Milledgeville, GA, USA
| | | | | | | | - Cara F Smith
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, USA
| | - Joshua M Parker
- Life Science Department, Fresno City College, Fresno, CA, USA
| | - Jesse M Meik
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tarleton State University, Stephenville, TX, USA
| | - Michael DeGiorgio
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, CO, USA
| | - Todd A Castoe
- Department of Biology, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA.
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4
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Ochoa A, Hassinger ATB, Holding ML, Gibbs HL. Genetic characterization of potential venom resistance proteins in California ground squirrels (
Otospermophilus beecheyi
) using transcriptome analyses. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART B: MOLECULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL EVOLUTION 2022; 340:259-269. [PMID: 35611404 DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.23145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the molecular basis of adaptations in coevolving species requires identifying the genes that underlie reciprocally selected phenotypes, such as those involved in venom in snakes and resistance to the venom in their prey. In this regard, California ground squirrels (CGS; Otospermophilus beecheyi) are eaten by northern Pacific rattlesnakes (Crotalus oreganus oreganus), but individual squirrels may still show substantial resistance to venom and survive bites. A recent study using proteomics identified venom interactive proteins (VIPs) in the blood serum of CGS. These VIPs represent possible resistance proteins, but the sequences of genes encoding them are unknown despite the value of such data to molecular studies of coevolution. To address this issue, we analyzed a de novo assembled transcriptome from CGS liver tissue-where many plasma proteins are synthesized-and other tissues from this species. We then examined VIP sequences in terms of three characteristics that identify them as possible resistance proteins: evidence for positive selection, high liver expression, and nonsynonymous variation across CGS populations. Based on these characteristics, we identified five VIPs (i.e., α-2-macroglobulin, α-1-antitrypsin-like protein GS55-LT, apolipoprotein A-II, hibernation-associated plasma protein HP-20, and hibernation-associated plasma protein HP-27) as the most likely candidates for resistance proteins among VIPs identified to date. Four of these proteins have been previously implicated in conferring resistance to the venom in mammals, validating our approach. When combined with the detailed information available for rattlesnake venom proteins, these results set the stage for future work focused on understanding coevolutionary interactions at the molecular level between these species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Ochoa
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology and Ohio Biodiversity Conservation Partnership Ohio State University Columbus Ohio USA
- Department of Biology University of Central Florida Orlando Florida USA
| | - Alyssa T. B. Hassinger
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology and Ohio Biodiversity Conservation Partnership Ohio State University Columbus Ohio USA
| | | | - H. Lisle Gibbs
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology and Ohio Biodiversity Conservation Partnership Ohio State University Columbus Ohio USA
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5
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Robinson KE, Holding ML, Whitford MD, Saviola AJ, Yates JR, Clark RW. Phenotypic and functional variation in venom and venom resistance of two sympatric rattlesnakes and their prey. J Evol Biol 2021; 34:1447-1465. [PMID: 34322920 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 06/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Predator-prey interactions often lead to the coevolution of adaptations associated with avoiding predation and, for predators, overcoming those defences. Antagonistic coevolutionary relationships are often not simple interactions between a single predator and prey but rather a complex web of interactions between multiple coexisting species. Coevolution between venomous rattlesnakes and small mammals has led to physiological venom resistance in several mammalian taxa. In general, viperid venoms contain large quantities of snake venom metalloproteinase toxins (SVMPs), which are inactivated by SVMP inhibitors expressed in resistant mammals. We explored variation in venom chemistry, SVMP expression, and SVMP resistance across four co-distributed species (California Ground Squirrels, Bryant's Woodrats, Southern Pacific Rattlesnakes, and Red Diamond Rattlesnakes) collected from four different populations in Southern California. Our aim was to understand phenotypic and functional variation in venom and venom resistance in order to compare coevolutionary dynamics of a system involving two sympatric predator-prey pairs to past studies that have focused on single pairs. Proteomic analysis of venoms indicated that these rattlesnakes express different phenotypes when in sympatry, with Red Diamonds expressing more typical viperid venom (with a diversity of SVMPs) and Southern Pacifics expressing a more atypical venom with a broader range of non-enzymatic toxins. We also found that although blood sera from both mammals were generally able to inhibit SVMPs from both rattlesnake species, inhibition depended strongly on the snake population, with snakes from one geographic site expressing SVMPs to which few mammals were resistant. Additionally, we found that Red Diamond venom, rather than woodrat resistance, was locally adapted. Our findings highlight the complexity of coevolutionary relationships between multiple predators and prey that exhibit similar offensive and defensive strategies in sympatry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly E Robinson
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA.,Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA.,Program in Ecology, Evolution and Conservation Biology, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA
| | - Matthew L Holding
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Science, University of Nevada, Reno, NV, USA.,Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Malachi D Whitford
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA.,Ecology Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Anthony J Saviola
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Neurobiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - John R Yates
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Neurobiology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - Rulon W Clark
- Department of Biology, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA, USA
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6
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Bacterial expression of a snake venom metalloproteinase inhibitory protein from the North American opossum (D.virginiana). Toxicon 2021; 194:1-10. [PMID: 33581173 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2021.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2020] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A variety of opossum species are resistant to snake venoms due to the presence of antihemorrhagic and antimyotoxic acidic serum glycoproteins that inhibit several toxic venom components. Two virtually identical antihemorrhagic proteins isolated from either the North American opossum (D. virginiana) or the South American big-eared opossum (D. aurita), termed oprin or DM43 respectively, inhibit specific snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs). A better understanding of the structure of these proteins may provide useful insight to determine their mechanism of action and for the development of therapeutics against the global health concern of snake-bite envenomation. The aim of this work is to produce a recombinant snake venom metalloproteinase inhibitor (SVMPI) similar to the above opossum proteins in Escherichia coli and determine if this bacterially produced protein inhibits the proteolytic properties of Western Diamondback rattlesnake (C. atrox) venom. The resulting heterologous SVMPI was produced with either a 6-Histidine or maltose binding protein (MBP) affinity tag on either the C-terminus or N-terminus of the protein, respectively. The presence of the solubility enhancing MBP affinity tag resulted in significantly more soluble protein expression. The inhibitory activity was measured using two complementary assays and the MBP labeled SVMPI showed 7-fold less activity as compared to the 6-Histidine labeled SVMPI. Thus, the bacterially derived SVMPI with an unlabeled N-terminus showed high inhibitory activity (IC50 = 4.5 μM). The use of a solubility enhancing MBP fusion protein construct appears to be a productive way to express sufficient quantities of this mammalian protein in E. coli for further study.
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7
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Gibbs HL, Sanz L, Pérez A, Ochoa A, Hassinger ATB, Holding ML, Calvete JJ. The molecular basis of venom resistance in a rattlesnake-squirrel predator-prey system. Mol Ecol 2020; 29:2871-2888. [PMID: 32593182 DOI: 10.1111/mec.15529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Revised: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Understanding how interspecific interactions mould the molecular basis of adaptations in coevolving species is a long-sought goal of evolutionary biology. Venom in predators and venom resistance proteins in prey are coevolving molecular phenotypes, and while venoms are highly complex mixtures it is unclear if prey respond with equally complex resistance traits. Here, we use a novel molecular methodology based on protein affinity columns to capture and identify candidate blood serum resistance proteins ("venom interactive proteins" [VIPs]) in California Ground Squirrels (Otospermophilus beecheyi) that interact with venom proteins from their main predator, Northern Pacific Rattlesnakes (Crotalus o. oreganus). This assay showed that serum-based resistance is both population- and species-specific, with serum proteins from ground squirrels showing higher binding affinities for venom proteins of local snakes compared to allopatric individuals. Venom protein specificity assays identified numerous and diverse candidate prey resistance VIPs but also potential targets of venom in prey tissues. Many specific VIPs bind to multiple snake venom proteins and, conversely, single venom proteins bind multiple VIPs, demonstrating that a portion of the squirrel blood serum "resistome" involves broad-based inhibition of nonself proteins and suggests that resistance involves a toxin scavenging mechanism. Analyses of rates of evolution of VIP protein homologues in related mammals show that most of these proteins evolve under purifying selection possibly due to molecular constraints that limit the evolutionary responses of prey to rapidly evolving snake venom proteins. Our method represents a general approach to identify specific proteins involved in co-evolutionary interactions between species at the molecular level.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Lisle Gibbs
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Libia Sanz
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, CSIC, Valencia, Spain
| | - Alicia Pérez
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, CSIC, Valencia, Spain
| | - Alexander Ochoa
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Alyssa T B Hassinger
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Matthew L Holding
- Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.,Department of Biological Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Juan J Calvete
- Evolutionary and Translational Venomics Laboratory, CSIC, Valencia, Spain
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8
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American Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) Serum Inhibits Pitviper Venom Metalloproteinases. J HERPETOL 2020. [DOI: 10.1670/19-027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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9
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Grabowsky ER, Mackessy SP. Predator-prey interactions and venom composition in a high elevation lizard specialist, Crotalus pricei (Twin-spotted Rattlesnake). Toxicon 2019; 170:29-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Revised: 09/05/2019] [Accepted: 09/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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10
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Ozverel CS, Damm M, Hempel BF, Göçmen B, Sroka R, Süssmuth RD, Nalbantsoy A. Investigating the cytotoxic effects of the venom proteome of two species of the Viperidae family (Cerastes cerastes and Cryptelytrops purpureomaculatus) from various habitats. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2019; 220:20-30. [PMID: 30825636 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2019.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Revised: 02/20/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Animal secretions are of great interest in terms of drug development due to their complex protein and peptide composition. Especially, in the field of therapeutic medications such as anti-cancer drugs snake venoms receive attention. In this study, we address two Viperidae species from various habitats with a particular focus on the cytotoxic potential along with the decomplexation of the venom proteome: the horned desert viper (Cerastes cerastes), native to desert regions of North Africa and the mangrove pit viper (Cryptelytrops purpureomaculatus), found in coastal forests of Southeast Asia. Initial cytotoxic screenings of the crude venoms revealed diverse activity, with the highest effect against SHSY5Y human glioblastoma carcinoma cells compared to other cancerous and non-cancerous cell lines. In-depth cytotoxicity studies of SHSY5Y cells with purified venom fractions revealed heterodimeric disintegrins from C. cerastes venom, which exerted a high cytotoxic activity with IC50 values from 0.11 to 0.58 μM and a disintegrin-like effect on SHSY5Y morphology was observed due to cell detachment. Furthermore, two polyproline BPP-related peptides, one PLA2 and a peptide-rich fraction were determined for C. purpureomaculatus with moderate IC50 values between 3 and 51 μM. Additionally, the decryption of the venom proteomes by snake venomic mass spectrometry and comparison of the same species from different habitats revealed slight differences in the composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cenk Serhan Ozverel
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ege University, Bornova, 35100 Izmir, Turkey
| | - Maik Damm
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Strasse des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Benjamin-Florian Hempel
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Strasse des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Bayram Göçmen
- Zoology Section, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Ege University, Bornova, 35100 Izmir, Turkey
| | - Robert Sroka
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Strasse des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Roderich D Süssmuth
- Technische Universität Berlin, Institut für Chemie, Strasse des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Ayse Nalbantsoy
- Department of Bioengineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ege University, Bornova, 35100 Izmir, Turkey.
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11
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Goetz SM, Piccolomini S, Hoffman M, Bogan J, Holding ML, Mendonça MT, Steen DA. Serum-based inhibition of pitviper venom by eastern indigo snakes ( Drymarchon couperi). Biol Open 2019; 8:bio.040964. [PMID: 30824421 PMCID: PMC6451346 DOI: 10.1242/bio.040964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
When organisms possess chemical defenses, their predators may eventually evolve resistance to their toxins. Eastern indigo snakes (Drymarchon couperi; EIS) prey on pitvipers and are suspected to possess physiological resistance to their venom. In this study, we formally investigated this hypothesis using microassays that measured the ability of EIS blood sera to inhibit (A) hemolytic and (B) snake venom metalloproteinase (SVMP) activity of copperhead (Agkistrodon contortrix) venom. To serve as controls, we also tested the inhibitory ability of sera from house mice (Mus musculus) and checkered gartersnakes (Thamnophis marcianus), a snake that does not feed on pitvipers. Sera from both EIS and gartersnakes inhibited over 60% of SVMP activity, while only EIS sera also inhibited venom hemolytic activity (78%). Our results demonstrate that EIS serum is indeed capable of inhibiting two of the primary classes of toxins found in copperhead venom, providing the first empirical evidence suggesting that EIS possess physiological resistance to venom upon injection. Because we documented resistance to hemolytic components of pitviper venom within EIS but not gartersnakes, we speculate this resistance may be driven by selection from feeding on pitvipers while resistance to SVMP may be relatively widespread among snakes. Summary: We confirm eastern indigo snakes possess a physiological resistance to pitviper venom and speculate that venom resistance in snakes may be a product of antagonistic interactions and phylogenetically conserved traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott M Goetz
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Sara Piccolomini
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - Michelle Hoffman
- Orianne Center for Indigo Conservation, Central Florida Zoo & Botanical Gardens, Eustis, FL 32736, USA
| | - James Bogan
- Orianne Center for Indigo Conservation, Central Florida Zoo & Botanical Gardens, Eustis, FL 32736, USA
| | - Matthew L Holding
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32304, USA
| | - Mary T Mendonça
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
| | - David A Steen
- Georgia Sea Turtle Center, Jekyll Island Authority, Jekyll Island, GA 31527, USA
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12
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Coevolution takes the sting out of it: Evolutionary biology and mechanisms of toxin resistance in animals. Toxicon 2017; 140:118-131. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.10.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2017] [Revised: 10/06/2017] [Accepted: 10/23/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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13
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No safety in the trees: Local and species-level adaptation of an arboreal squirrel to the venom of sympatric rattlesnakes. Toxicon 2016; 118:149-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2016] [Revised: 04/03/2016] [Accepted: 05/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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14
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Holding ML, Drabeck DH, Jansa SA, Gibbs HL. Venom Resistance as a Model for Understanding the Molecular Basis of Complex Coevolutionary Adaptations. Integr Comp Biol 2016; 56:1032-1043. [PMID: 27444525 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icw082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
SynopsisVenom and venom resistance are molecular phenotypes widely considered to have diversified through coevolution between predators and prey. However, while evolutionary and functional studies on venom have been extensive, little is known about the molecular basis, variation, and complexity of venom resistance. We review known mechanisms of venom resistance and relate these mechanisms to their predicted impact on coevolutionary dynamics with venomous enemies. We then describe two conceptual approaches which can be used to examine venom/resistance systems. At the intraspecific level, tests of local adaptation in venom and resistance phenotypes can identify the functional mechanisms governing the outcomes of coevolution. At deeper evolutionary timescales, the combination of phylogenetically informed analyses of protein evolution coupled with studies of protein function promise to elucidate the mode and tempo of evolutionary change on potentially coevolving genes. We highlight case studies that use each approach to extend our knowledge of these systems as well as address larger questions about coevolutionary dynamics. We argue that resistance and venom are phenotypic traits which hold exceptional promise for investigating the mechanisms, dynamics, and outcomes of coevolution at the molecular level. Furthermore, extending the understanding of single gene-for-gene interactions to the whole resistance and venom phenotypes may provide a model system for examining the molecular and evolutionary dynamics of complex multi-gene interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew L Holding
- *Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, 318 W. 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.,*Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, 318 W. 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
| | - Danielle H Drabeck
- *Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, 318 W. 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.,Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior, University of Minnesota, 1987 Upper Buford Circle, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA.,J. F. Bell Museum of Natural History, University of Minnesota, 1987 Upper Buford Circle, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - Sharon A Jansa
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior, University of Minnesota, 1987 Upper Buford Circle, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA.,J. F. Bell Museum of Natural History, University of Minnesota, 1987 Upper Buford Circle, St. Paul, MN 55108, USA
| | - H Lisle Gibbs
- *Department of Evolution, Ecology, and Organismal Biology, The Ohio State University, 318 W. 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA.,Ohio Biodiversity Conservation Partnership, The Ohio State University, 318 W. 12th Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210, USA
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15
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Vyas VK, Brahmbhatt K, Bhatt H, Parmar U. Therapeutic potential of snake venom in cancer therapy: current perspectives. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2015; 3:156-62. [PMID: 23593597 DOI: 10.1016/s2221-1691(13)60042-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2012] [Accepted: 12/28/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Many active secretions produced by animals have been employed in the development of new drugs to treat diseases such as hypertension and cancer. Snake venom toxins contributed significantly to the treatment of many medical conditions. There are many published studies describing and elucidating the anti-cancer potential of snake venom. Cancer therapy is one of the main areas for the use of protein peptides and enzymes originating from animals of different species. Some of these proteins or peptides and enzymes from snake venom when isolated and evaluated may bind specifically to cancer cell membranes, affecting the migration and proliferation of these cells. Some of substances found in the snake venom present a great potential as anti-tumor agent. In this review, we presented the main results of recent years of research involving the active compounds of snake venom that have anticancer activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivek Kumar Vyas
- Institute of Pharmacy, Nirma University, Ahmadabad 382 481 Gujarat, India
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16
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Fry BG, Scheib H, Junqueira de Azevedo IDL, Silva DA, Casewell NR. Novel transcripts in the maxillary venom glands of advanced snakes. Toxicon 2012; 59:696-708. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2012.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2011] [Revised: 03/02/2012] [Accepted: 03/06/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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17
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Price-Rees SJ, Brown GP, Shine R. Interacting impacts of invasive plants and invasive toads on native lizards. Am Nat 2012; 179:413-22. [PMID: 22322228 DOI: 10.1086/664184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
The ecological impacts of an invasive species may be reduced by prior invasions if selective pressures imposed by earlier events preadapt the native biota to deal with the newer arrival. In northwestern Australia, invasion of the cane toad (Rhinella marina) kills many native predators if they ingest the highly toxic toads. Remarkably, the toads' defensive toxins (bufadienolides) are chemically similar to those of another invasive species: an ornamental plant from Madagascar, Bryophyllum spp. (Crassulaceae, mother-of-millions). Omnivorous lizards (bluetongue skinks, Tiliqua scincoides) are imperiled by the invasion of toads in northwestern Australia, but conspecifics from other areas of the continent (those where exotic plants were introduced and including areas where toads have yet to invade) are less affected because they exhibit higher physiological tolerance of toad toxins (and also of plant toxins). The willingness of captive bluetongues to consume both toads and these plants and the high correlation in the lizards' sensitivity to toad toxins versus plant toxins suggest that exotic plants may have imposed strong selection on the lizards' physiological tolerance of bufadienolides. As a result, populations of lizards from areas previously exposed to these alien plants may be preadapted to deal with the toxins of the more recent anuran invader.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha J Price-Rees
- School of Biological Sciences A08, University of Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
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18
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Venom lethality and diet: Differential responses of natural prey and model organisms to the venom of the saw-scaled vipers (Echis). Toxicon 2012; 59:110-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2011.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2010] [Revised: 10/20/2011] [Accepted: 10/27/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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19
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Biardi J, Ho C, Marcinczyk J, Nambiar K. Isolation and identification of a snake venom metalloproteinase inhibitor from California ground squirrel (Spermophilus beecheyi) blood sera. Toxicon 2011; 58:486-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2011.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2011] [Revised: 06/30/2011] [Accepted: 08/18/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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20
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Wong ESW, Papenfuss AT, Whittington CM, Warren WC, Belov K. A limited role for gene duplications in the evolution of platypus venom. Mol Biol Evol 2011; 29:167-77. [PMID: 21816864 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msr180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Gene duplication followed by adaptive selection is believed to be the primary driver of venom evolution. However, to date, no studies have evaluated the importance of gene duplications for venom evolution using a genomic approach. The availability of a sequenced genome and a venom gland transcriptome for the enigmatic platypus provides a unique opportunity to explore the role that gene duplication plays in venom evolution. Here, we identify gene duplication events and correlate them with expressed transcripts in an in-season venom gland. Gene duplicates (1,508) were identified. These duplicated pairs (421), including genes that have undergone multiple rounds of gene duplications, were expressed in the venom gland. The majority of these genes are involved in metabolism and protein synthesis not toxin functions. Twelve secretory genes including serine proteases, metalloproteinases, and protease inhibitors likely to produce symptoms of envenomation such as vasodilation and pain were detected. Only 16 of 107 platypus genes with high similarity to known toxins evolved through gene duplication. Platypus venom C-type natriuretic peptides and nerve growth factor do not possess lineage-specific gene duplicates. Extensive duplications, believed to increase the potency of toxic content and promote toxin diversification, were not found. This is the first study to take a genome-wide approach in order to examine the impact of gene duplication on venom evolution. Our findings support the idea that adaptive selection acts on gene duplicates to drive the independent evolution and functional diversification of similar venom genes in venomous species. However, gene duplications alone do not explain the "venome" of the platypus. Other mechanisms, such as alternative splicing and mutation, may be important in venom innovation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily S W Wong
- Faculty of Veterinary Science, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
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21
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Biardi JE, Coss RG. Rock squirrel (Spermophilus variegatus) blood sera affects proteolytic and hemolytic activities of rattlesnake venoms. Toxicon 2011; 57:323-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2010] [Revised: 12/09/2010] [Accepted: 12/14/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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22
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Biardi JE, Nguyen KT, Lander S, Whitley M, Nambiar KP. A rapid and sensitive fluorometric method for the quantitative analysis of snake venom metalloproteases and their inhibitors. Toxicon 2010; 57:342-7. [PMID: 21187109 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2010] [Revised: 12/09/2010] [Accepted: 12/17/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Metalloproteases are responsible for the hemorrhagic effects of many snake venoms and contribute to other pathways that lead to local tissue damage. Methods that quantify snake venom metalloproteases (SVMP) are therefore valuable tools in research on the clinical, physiological, and biochemical effects of envenomation. Comparative analysis of individual, population, and species differences requires screening of large numbers of samples and treatments, and therefore require a method of quantifying SVMP activity that is simple, rapid, and sensitive. This paper demonstrates the properties of a new fluorometric assay of SVMP activity that can provide a measure of metalloprotease activity in 1 h. The assay is reliable, with variation among replicates sufficiently small to reliably detect differences in between species (F(19,60) = 2924, p < 0.001), even for those venoms with low overall activity. It is also sensitive enough to detect differences among venoms using <2 ng of whole venom protein. We provide an example use of this assay to detect the presence of natural SVMP inhibitors in minute samples of blood plasma from rock squirrels (S. variegatus), a natural prey species for North American rattlesnakes. We propose this assay is a useful addition to the set of tools used to characterize venoms, as well as high-throughput screening of natural or synthetic inhibitors, or other novel therapeutic agents against SVMP effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Biardi
- Department of Biology, Fairfield University, 1073 North Benson Road, Fairfield, CT 06824, USA.
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23
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Boronow KE, Langkilde T. Sublethal effects of invasive fire ant venom on a native lizard. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 313:17-23. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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24
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A nesting of vipers: Phylogeny and historical biogeography of the Viperidae (Squamata: Serpentes). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2008; 49:445-59. [PMID: 18804544 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2008.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2007] [Revised: 08/01/2008] [Accepted: 08/28/2008] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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25
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Sánchez EE, Rodríguez-Acosta A. Inhibitors of Snake Venoms and Development of New Therapeutics. Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol 2008; 30:647-78. [DOI: 10.1080/08923970802279019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Elda E. Sánchez
- 1Natural Toxins Research Center (NTRC), College of Arts and Sciences, Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Kingsville, Texas, USA
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26
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Sanz L, Gibbs HL, Mackessy SP, Calvete JJ. Venom Proteomes of Closely RelatedSistrurusRattlesnakes with Divergent Diets. J Proteome Res 2006; 5:2098-112. [PMID: 16944921 DOI: 10.1021/pr0602500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The protein composition of the venoms of the three subspecies of Sistrurus catenatus (S. c. catenatus, tergeminus, and edwardsii) and a basal species, Sistrurus miliarius barbouri, were analyzed by RP-HPLC, N-terminal sequencing, MALDI-TOF peptide mass fingerprinting, and CID-MS/MS. The venoms of the four Sistrurus taxa contain proteins from 11 families. The protein family profile and the relative abundance of each protein group in the different venoms are not conserved. Myotoxins and 2-chain PLA2s were detected only in S.c. catenatus and S.c. tergeminus, whereas C-type BPP and Kunitz-type inhibitors were exclusively found in S.c. edwardsii and Sistrurus miliarius barbouri. Among major protein families, taxa were most similar in their metalloproteases (protein similarity coefficient value: 34%) and most divergent in PLA2s (12%), with values for disintegrins and serine proteases lying between these extremes (25 and 20%, respectively). The patterns of venom diversity points to either a gain in complexity in S. catenatus taxa or a loss of venom diversity occurring early on in the evolution of the group involving the lineage connecting S. milarius to the other taxa. The high degree of differentiation in the venom proteome among recently evolved congeneric taxa emphasizes the uniqueness of the venom composition of even closely related species that have different diets. Comparative proteomic analysis of Sistrurus venoms provides a comprehensive catalog of secreted proteins, which may contribute to a deeper understanding of the biology and ecology of these North American snakes and may also serve as a starting point for studying structure-function correlations of individual toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Libia Sanz
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, C.S.I.C., Jaume Roig 11, 46010 Valencia, Spain
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