An Unstable Monoterpene Alcohol as a Pheromone Component of the Longhorned Beetle Paranoplium gracile (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)

Exploring the Nature of Arhopalus ferus (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae: Spondylidinae) Pheromone Attraction

Cerambycid species of the Spondylidinae subfamily are distributed worldwide and are known for being prolific invaders that infest conifers. In New Zealand, Arhopalus ferus (Mulsant), the burnt pine longhorn beetle, is well-established and requires monitoring at high-risk sites such as ports, airports, and sawmills as part of the requirements to meet pine log export standards set by the New Zealand Ministry of Primary Industries (MPI). Currently, its surveillance relies on traps baited with host volatiles (i.e., ethanol and α-pinene). We used volatile collections from adult beetles, electroantennograms, and field trapping bioassays to identify the pheromones emitted by the burnt pine longhorn beetle A. ferus and their effects on its behaviour. We show that A. ferus males emit mainly (E)-fuscumol and geranylacetone, as well as the minor components, α-terpinene and p-mentha-1,3,8-triene, and that all four compounds elicit a dose-dependent response in antennae of both sexes. Traps baited with the binary combination of geranylacetone plus fuscumol captured significantly more female A. ferus than did unbaited traps in two of three field experiments. α-Terpinene did not affect A. ferus trap catches and effects of p-mentha-1,3,8-triene on trap catch were not determined. Our findings provide further evidence of the use of fuscumol and geranylacetone as aggregation-sex pheromones by longhorn beetles in the Spondylidinae subfamily, and suggest that their deployment in survey traps may improve the efficacy of A. ferus monitoring in New Zealand and elsewhere.

Natural Sources and Bioactivities of 2,4-Di-Tert-Butylphenol and Its Analogs

2,4-Di-tert-butylphenol or 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-phenol (2,4-DTBP) is a common toxic secondary metabolite produced by various groups of organisms. The biosources and bioactivities of 2,4-DTBP have been well investigated, but the phenol has not been systematically reviewed. This article provides a comprehensive review of 2,4-DTBP and its analogs with emphasis on natural sources and bioactivities. 2,4-DTBP has been found in at least 169 species of bacteria (16 species, 10 families), fungi (11 species, eight families), diatom (one species, one family), liverwort (one species, one family), pteridiphyta (two species, two families), gymnosperms (four species, one family), dicots (107 species, 58 families), monocots (22 species, eight families), and animals (five species, five families). 2,4-DTBP is often a major component of violate or essential oils and it exhibits potent toxicity against almost all testing organisms, including the producers; however, it is not clear why organisms produce autotoxic 2,4-DTBP and its analogs. The accumulating evidence indicates that the endocidal regulation seems to be the primary function of the phenols in the producing organisms.