The Candy Crush Sweet Tooth: How 'Near-misses' in Candy Crush Increase Frustration, and the Urge to Continue Gameplay

Colliding harms of gambling and gaming: A four-wave longitudinal population study of at-risk gambling and gaming in Finland

Aims: Both gambling and digital gaming are growing in popularity and there is ongoing discussion about their convergence. This population-based longitudinal survey study investigated how gambling and digital gaming types contribute to at-risk gambling and gaming. Methods: The study was based on a representative sample of 18-75-year-olds from mainland Finland. Survey data were collected at 6-month intervals in 2021-2022, starting in April 2021. Of original T1 respondents, 58.95% took part in all four time points. In total, 3,608 observations from 902 individuals were analysed. Outcome measures were at-risk gambling and gaming based on the Problem Gambling Severity Index and the Internet Gaming Disorder Test. Various types of gambling and gaming were investigated. Results: Population-averaged models showed that different forms of gambling were associated with a higher risk of at-risk gaming. Online casino games were associated with the highest likelihood of at-risk gambling and gaming. Prevalence of digital gaming problems was low. Hybrid models were used to investigate the longitudinal within-person and between-person effects of gambling and gaming activities. Online casino games and offline slot machines increased at-risk gambling. Microtransactions within digital games increased at-risk gambling and gaming over time, but the amount of money spent on digital gaming was small compared to gambling. Conclusions: Our results underline the risks of EGMs and online gambling for the participants. Although gambling and gaming are converging, harm is mostly based on gambling.

Outcome assessment of different reward stimuli in Internet gaming disorder by event-related potentials

An imbalance in sensitivity to different types of reward stimuli may be an important cause of addiction that is mainly manifested in high sensitivity to addictive substance rewards and blunting of natural rewards. However, contradictions remain in the research results on the sensitivity of individuals with Internet gaming disorder (IGD) to different reward stimuli. Based on participants' neural responses to win and loss feedback (in door task), the event-related potential (ERP) technique was used to investigate the effects of different types of reward stimuli on the assessment of reward-processing outcomes in individuals with IGD. The results showed that in the gain condition, the FB-P3 amplitude induced by game stimuli in the IGD group was significantly higher than that in the control group, and the FN amplitude induced by money stimuli was significantly lower than that in the control group. However, the FB-P3 and FN amplitudes induced by food were not significantly different from those in the control group. In the loss condition, there were no between-group differences in the FB-P3 and FN amplitudes evoked by the three reward stimuli. This indicates that the IGD group showed increased hedonic responses to game stimuli and decreased hedonic responses to money but no differences in hedonic responses to food during the reward assessment phase. Therefore, heightened sensitivity to game rewards and diminished sensitivity to monetary rewards during outcome assessment may play a crucial role in the development of IGD.

The relationship between playing video games on mobile devices and well-being in a sample of Japanese adolescents and adults

Objectives

In this study, I have tested the following hypothesis: Playing a mobile game for an appropriate length of time results in a stronger sense of happiness (well-being) than not playing at all.

Methods

I used the questionnaires data from 5000 participants. Well-being was measured using the three following indicators: the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, satisfaction with life scale, and four-dimensional happiness indicator. I constructed a mathematical model for determining individual well-being. The variable of game playtime was split into two parts, and the split points were selected as the most applicable using Akaike Information Criterion to search for the appropriate length of time spent playing the mobile game.

Results

The results showed that mobile games were significantly and positively correlated with both positive and negative emotions. Playing a mobile game for 2 h or less each day was associated with a significantly higher satisfaction with life than not playing one at all. Further, well-being was significantly higher when there were no time limitations with regard to "relationship and gratitude" and when playing a mobile game for no more than 1.5 h each day with regard to "independence and my own pace" as compared to not playing one at all. Playing a mobile game for more than 2 h each day, however, resulted in lower well-being with regard to "self-realization and growth" and "positive frame of mind and optimism" as compared to not playing one at all.

Conclusion

These findings indicate that playing a mobile game for no longer than 1.5 h each day results in higher well-being than not playing one at all. Conversely, playing a mobile game for more than 2 h each day significantly lowers some aspects of happiness but does not significantly affect the overall satisfaction with life.

“These People Had Taken Advantage of Me”: A Grounded Theory of Problematic Consequences of Player Interaction with Mobile Games Perceived as “Designed to Drive Spending”

Many games which incorporate microtransactions—uncapped, repeated in-game purchases—are described by players as having had their 'dynamics designed to drive spending'. Such games are perceived by players as designed primarily to encourage spending, rather than with the improvement of the player experience in mind. However, it is unknown how playing these games affects players. We addressed the research question of “What consequences might there be of interaction with games perceived as having had their dynamics designed to drive spending?” considering adult players. We conducted semi-structured interviews and used a grounded theory method of analysis. Our findings revealed five life areas of problematic consequences: financial issues, problems at work and education due to distraction and lack of productivity, emotional consequences for self-perception, problems sleeping, and social consequences. These outcomes emerge from the interaction of players with certain vulnerability traits with these game mechanics. We discuss these findings in the context of gaming disorder and the gamblification of games.

Problem mobile gaming: The role of mobile gaming habits, context, and platform

Aims: Mobile gaming is a dominant form of gaming, known for its portability and for game characteristics that motivate continuous play and spending. Such involvement may also turn problematic, but research on problem gaming (PG) has tended to focus on non-mobile forms of gaming. The study was based on a cross-sectional observational design where students in upper secondary schools were recruited to a survey about mobile gaming. The age of the respondents ranged from 16 to 23 years (n = 519; 52.4% men; mean age = 17.2 years, SD = 1.1). Methods: We examined (1) gaming frequency, gaming contexts, and in-game spending in relation to PG; (2) gaming context in relation to academic achievement and sleep quality; and (3) PG according to gaming platform (i.e., playing on mobile, console/computer, or mixed platforms) with Kruskal−Wallis tests, chi-square tests and Spearman rank-order correlations. Results: PG was positively associated with mobile gaming hours per week (η² = .02, p < .01), minutes per session (η² = .03, p < .001), making in-app purchases (Cramer's V = .15, p < .05), and gaming during homework (Cramer's V = .14, p < .05). Statistically significant associations were found between mobile gaming in bed and later sleep midpoint for weekdays (r_s = .18, p < .001) and weekends (r_s = .11, p < .05). Mixed platform gamers had increased likelihood of PG, console/computer gamers had increased likelihood of being at risk for PG, and mobile gamers had lower risk for PG (Cramer's V = .18, p < .001). Conclusion: Future studies should include specific measures of mobile gaming as it appears implicated in problem gaming, albeit to a lesser degree than console and computer gaming.

Near Miss in a Video Game: an Experimental Study

Models to explain persistent and excessive gaming behavior have proposed that reward characteristics in video games influence gaming behavior, yet these characteristics have received minimal empirical attention to date. The present study employed an experimental approach to examine how a near miss and other different outcomes (a win or loss with small and large margin, respectively) influence gaming behavior and subjective experiences and evaluations of the game. A total of 40 participants competed against four avatars in a counterbalanced repeated measure design with four scenarios: (a) losing by a large margin, (b) losing by a small margin, (c) winning by a small margin, and (d) winning by a large margin. Outcome measurements included the urge to continue playing, affective response, game evaluation, and regret. Repeated measure ANOVAs with post hoc tests were employed to assess outcomes across the scenarios. Participants reported greater frustration and regret when losing compared to winning and tended to evaluate the games they won more positively than the games they lost. Participants felt more bored and less excited when they experienced a near miss compared to winning by a large margin. The results show that winning in video games influences players’ experiences and perceptions differently than losing.

The relationship between the skill-challenge balance, game expertise, flow and the urge to keep playing complex mobile games

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Interest surrounding the relationship between flow and problematic gameplay has surged. An important antecedent of flow in the context of video-gaming is the skill-challenge balance, but researchers have only manipulated this balance by changing speed of play. The current research seeks to examine the skill-challenge balance and flow in a mobile game in which challenge is increased via the complexity of puzzles. We predicted games like Candy-Crush would more strongly support a model of flow in which the greatest flow would be experienced by more skilled players and that high flow games would induce the most urge to continue play.

METHODS

We had 60 Candy-Crush players play games near their level standing (maximal skill-challenge balance), or games that were too easy or too hard. Perceived skill, challenge, flow, and urge to continue gameplay were measured after each game.

RESULTS

Players felt the highest degree of skill-challenge balance when playing games around their level standing. Easy games produced the least flow, while both regular and hard games produced comparable flow despite hard games being far more challenging and frustrating. The findings support models of flow positing those with highest perceived skill will experience greater flow. Finally, flow and arousal combine to increase urge to keep playing.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest those with high perceived skill will experience deep, immersive flow which motivates players to keep playing.

The changing face of desktop video game monetisation: An exploration of exposure to loot boxes, pay to win, and cosmetic microtransactions in the most-played Steam games of 2010-2019

It is now common practice for video game companies to not just sell copies of games themselves, but to also sell in-game bonuses or items for a small real-world fee. These purchases may be purely aesthetic (cosmetic microtransactions) or confer in-game advantages (pay to win microtransactions), and may also contain these items as randomised contents of uncertain value (loot boxes). The growth of microtransactions has attracted substantial interest from both gamers, academics, and policymakers. However, it is not clear either how frequently exposed players are to these features in desktop games, or when any growth in exposure occurred. In order to address this, we analysed the play history of the 463 most-played Steam desktop games from 2010 to 2019. Results of exploratory joinpoint analyses suggested that cosmetic microtransactions and loot boxes experienced rapid growth during 2012–2014, leading to high levels of exposure by April 2019: 71.2% of the sample played games with loot boxes at this point, and 85.89% played games with cosmetic microtransactions. By contrast, pay to win microtransactions did not appear to experience similar growth in desktop games during the period, rising gradually to an exposure rate of 17.3% by November 2015, at which point growth decelerated significantly (p<0.001) to the point where it was not significantly different from zero (p = 0.32).

Excessive Spending in a "Free-to-Play" Smartphone Game

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Although gaming disorder is increasingly recognized, there has been limited consideration of the impact of free-to-play games with in-game purchases, also called microtransactions.

METHODS

Case report (n = 1).

RESULTS

A patient with posttraumatic stress disorder, major depressive disorder in remission, polysubstance use disorders in remission, and opioid use disorder on buprenorphine/naloxone developed gaming disorder (based on International Classification of Diseases, 11th revision) and spent up to 40% of his monthly income on microtransactions within a smartphone game. Treatment consisted of relinquishing access to electronic payment mechanisms, motivational interviewing, and couples therapy.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The case highlights how in-game purchases may cause patients with gaming disorder to experience financial consequences, and the need for further characterization of the clinical ramifications of microtransactions.

SCIENTIFIC SIGNIFICANCE

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report in the medical literature of a patient with gaming disorder developing excessive in-game spending from expenditures on microtransactions. (Am J Addict 2020;29:528-530).

An investigation of far and near transfer in a gamified visual learning paradigm

After training, visual perceptual learning improvements are mostly constrained to the trained stimulus feature and retinal location. The aim of this study is to construct an integrated paradigm where the visual learning happens in a more natural context and in parallel for multiple stimulus types, and to test the generalization of learning-related improvements towards untrained features, locations, and more general cognitive domains. Half the subjects were trained with a gamified perceptual learning paradigm for ten hours, which consisted of an orientation discrimination task and a novel object categorization task embedded in a three-dimensional maze. A second group of subjects, an active control group, played ten hours of Candy Crush Saga. Before and after training, all subjects completed a 'near transfer' orientation discrimination and novel object categorization task, as well as a set of 'far transfer' general cognitive and attentional tasks. During the perceptual learning tasks, two different stimulus features and two retinal location pairs were assessed in each task. For the experimental group, one stimulus feature and retinal location pair was trained, whilst the other one remained untrained. Both features and location pairs were untrained in the control group. Far transfer did occur in some domains across all subjects irrespective of the training regimen (i.e. executive functioning, mental rotation performance, and multitask performance and speed). Near transfer was present in both groups, however only more pronounced for one particular task in the experimental group, namely novel object categorization. To conclude, all but one near transfer task did not generalize more than the control group.

Online gaming and gaming disorder: more than just a trivial pursuit

Gaming disorder is set to be included in the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems alongside other behavioural addictions (gambling disorder) and substance-related addictions. Given the popularity of online gaming, this is set to become an increasingly common presentation to general mental health professionals, addiction specialists, and general practitioners. This article briefly examines online gaming and describes the characteristics of gaming disorder. Some features of online gaming that have addictive potential and similarities to other addictive behaviours such as gambling disorder are discussed. Finally, the article examines treatment options available for gaming disorder and treatment going forward from an Irish perspective.

Gambling on Smartphones: A Study of a Potentially Addictive Behaviour in a Naturalistic Setting

Smartphone users engage extensively with their devices, on an intermittent basis for short periods of time. These patterns of behaviour have the potential to make mobile gambling especially perseverative. This paper reports the first empirical study of mobile gambling in which a simulated gambling app was used to measure gambling behaviour in phases of acquisition and extinction. We found that participants showed considerable perseverance in the face of continued losses that were linearly related to their prior engagement with the app. Latencies between gambles were associated with the magnitude of reinforcement; more positive outcomes were associated with longer breaks between play and a greater propensity to end a gambling session. Greater latencies were associated with measurements of problem gambling, and perseverance with gambling-related cognitions and sensation-seeking behaviour.

Mobile gaming and problematic smartphone use: A comparative study between Belgium and Finland

Background and aims Gaming applications have become one of the main entertainment features on smartphones, and this could be potentially problematic in terms of dangerous, prohibited, and dependent use among a minority of individuals. A cross-national study was conducted in Belgium and Finland. The aim was to examine the relationship between gaming on smartphones and self-perceived problematic smartphone use via an online survey to ascertain potential predictors. Methods The Short Version of the Problematic Mobile Phone Use Questionnaire (PMPUQ-SV) was administered to a sample comprising 899 participants (30% male; age range: 18-67 years). Results Good validity and adequate reliability were confirmed regarding the PMPUQ-SV, especially the dependence subscale, but low prevalence rates were reported in both countries using the scale. Regression analysis showed that downloading, using Facebook, and being stressed contributed to problematic smartphone use. Anxiety emerged as predictor for dependence. Mobile games were used by one-third of the respective populations, but their use did not predict problematic smartphone use. Very few cross-cultural differences were found in relation to gaming through smartphones. Conclusion Findings suggest mobile gaming does not appear to be problematic in Belgium and Finland.

The relationship between gaming disorder and addiction requires a behavioral analysis

In their position paper, Aarseth et al. (2016) bring to light several timely issues concerning the categorization of gaming disorder as a form of addiction and as a discrete mental disorder. In our commentary, we welcome their caution toward this move and their discussion of the equivocal scientific data in its support and the potential negative consequences for gamers. We suggest that a more heterogeneous approach is required for understanding any behavioral addiction, as concepts from gambling appear to be more relevant for aspects of mobile gaming than for video games more generally. In addition to a greater need for clinical research, we argue that studying gaming at a different level of analysis than the epidemiological study is required to gain a meaningful understanding of the harm video games may or may not entail.