Increase in phospholamban content in mouse skeletal muscle after denervation

Cancer-associated muscle weakness - From triggers to molecular mechanisms

Skeletal muscle weakness is a debilitating consequence of many malignancies. Muscle weakness has a negative impact on both patient wellbeing and outcome in a range of cancer types and can be the result of loss of muscle mass (i.e. muscle atrophy, cachexia) and occur independently of muscle atrophy or cachexia. There are multiple cancer specific triggers that can initiate the progression of muscle weakness, including the malignancy itself and the tumour environment, as well as chemotherapy, radiotherapy and malnutrition. This can induce weakness via different routes: 1) impaired intrinsic capacity (i.e., contractile dysfunction and intramuscular impairments in excitation-contraction coupling or crossbridge cycling), 2) neuromuscular disconnection and/or 3) muscle atrophy. The mechanisms that underlie these pathways are a complex interplay of inflammation, autophagy, disrupted protein synthesis/degradation, and mitochondrial dysfunction. The current lack of therapies to treat cancer-associated muscle weakness highlight the critical need for novel interventions (both pharmacological and non-pharmacological) and mechanistic insight. Moreover, most research in the field has placed emphasis on directly improving muscle mass to improve muscle strength. However, accumulating evidence suggests that loss of muscle function precedes atrophy. This review primarily focuses on cancer-associated muscle weakness, independent of cachexia, and provides a solid background on the underlying mechanisms, methodology, current interventions, gaps in knowledge, and limitations of research in the field. Moreover, we have performed a mini-systematic review of recent research into the mechanisms behind muscle weakness in specific cancer types, along with the main pathways implicated.

The Effects of Aging on Sarcoplasmic Reticulum-Related Factors in the Skeletal Muscle of Mice

The pathogenesis of sarcopenia includes the dysfunction of calcium homeostasis associated with the sarcoplasmic reticulum; however, the localization in sarcoplasmic reticulum-related factors and differences by myofiber type remain unclear. Here, we investigated the effects of aging on sarcoplasmic reticulum-related factors in the soleus (slow-twitch) and gastrocnemius (fast-twitch) muscles of 3- and 24-month-old male C57BL/6J mice. There were no notable differences in the skeletal muscle weight of these 3- and 24-month-old mice. The expression of Atp2a1, Atp2a2, Sln, and Pln increased with age in the gastrocnemius muscles, but not in the soleus muscles. Subsequently, immunohistochemical analysis revealed ectopic sarcoplasmic reticulum calcium ion ATPase (SERCA) 1 and SERCA2a immunoreactivity only in the gastrocnemius muscles of old mice. Histochemical and transmission electron microscope analysis identified tubular aggregate (TA), an aggregation of the sarcoplasmic reticulum, in the gastrocnemius muscles of old mice. Dihydropyridine receptor α1, ryanodine receptor 1, junctophilin (JPH) 1, and JPH2, which contribute to sarcoplasmic reticulum function, were also localized in or around the TA. Furthermore, JPH1 and JPH2 co-localized with matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) 2 around the TA. These results suggest that sarcoplasmic reticulum-related factors are localized in or around TAs that occur in fast-twitch muscle with aging, but some of them might be degraded by MMP2.

Dietary leucine supplementation restores T-cell mitochondrial respiration and regulates T-lineage differentiation in denervation-induced sarcopenic mice

With the aim of offsetting immune dysfunction preceded by sarcopenia, the feasibility and efficiency of nutritional leucine supplementation were evaluated using a murine denervation-induced sarcopenia model. Sciatic nerve axotomy caused significant loss of skeletal muscle of the hind limbs and accelerated mitochondrial stress along with suppressed ATP production in spleen-derived T cells. Dietary leucine intake not only ameliorated muscle mass anabolism in a sarcopenic state, but also restored mitochondrial respiratory function, as indicated by elevated levels of basal respiration, maximal respiration, spare respiratory capacity, and ATP production, in T cells, which in turn led to downregulated expression of mTOR and downstream signals, as indicated by the findings of comprehensive transcriptome analysis. Consequentially, this finally resulted in amelioration of the sarcopenia-induced relative Th1/Th17-dominant proinflammatory microenvironment. These results highlight the importance of leucine-promoted metabolic cues in directing T cell fate in a sarcopenic microenvironment. The present study provides insights that particularly help rationalize the design and optimization of leucine supplementation for chronic sarcopenic patients with autoimmune diseases.

P2 Receptor Signaling in Motor Units in Muscular Dystrophy

The purine signaling system is represented by purine and pyrimidine nucleotides and nucleosides that exert their effects through the adenosine, P2X and P2Y receptor families. It is known that, under physiological conditions, P2 receptors play only a minor role in modulating the functions of cells and systems; however, their role significantly increases under some pathophysiological conditions, such as stress, ischemia or hypothermia, when they can play a dominant role as a signaling molecule. The diversity of P2 receptors and their wide distribution in the body make them very attractive as a target for the pharmacological action of drugs with a new mechanism of action. The review is devoted to the involvement of P2 signaling in the development of pathologies associated with a loss of muscle mass. The contribution of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) as a signal molecule in the pathogenesis of a number of muscular dystrophies (Duchenne, Becker and limb girdle muscular dystrophy 2B) is considered. To understand the processes involving the purinergic system, the role of the ATP and P2 receptors in several models associated with skeletal muscle degradation is also discussed.

Roles of ATP and SERCA in the Regulation of Calcium Turnover in Unloaded Skeletal Muscles: Current View and Future Directions

A decrease in skeletal muscle contractile activity or its complete cessation (muscle unloading or disuse) leads to muscle fibers’ atrophy and to alterations in muscle performance. These changes negatively affect the quality of life of people who, for one reason or another, are forced to face a limitation of physical activity. One of the key regulatory events leading to the muscle disuse-induced changes is an impairment of calcium homeostasis, which leads to the excessive accumulation of calcium ions in the sarcoplasm. This review aimed to analyze the triggering mechanisms of calcium homeostasis impairment (including those associated with the accumulation of high-energy phosphates) under various types of muscle unloading. Here we proposed a hypothesis about the regulatory mechanisms of SERCA and IP3 receptors activity during muscle unloading, and about the contribution of these mechanisms to the excessive calcium ion myoplasmic accumulation and gene transcription regulation via excitation–transcription coupling.

The SarcoEndoplasmic Reticulum Calcium ATPase (SERCA) pump: a potential target for intervention in aging and skeletal muscle pathologies

As a key regulator of cellular calcium homeostasis, the Sarcoendoplasmic Reticulum Calcium ATPase (SERCA) pump acts to transport calcium ions from the cytosol back to the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) following muscle contraction. SERCA function is closely associated with muscle health and function, and SERCA activity is susceptible to muscle pathogenesis. For example, it has been well reported that pathological conditions associated with aging, neurodegeneration, and muscular dystrophy (MD) significantly depress SERCA function with the potential to impair intracellular calcium homeostasis and further contribute to muscle atrophy and weakness. As a result, targeting SERCA activity has attracted attention as a therapeutical method for the treatment of muscle pathologies. The interventions include activation of SERCA activity and genetic overexpression of SERCA. This review will focus on SERCA function and regulation mechanisms and describe how those mechanisms are affected under muscle pathological conditions including elevated oxidative stress induced by aging, muscle disease, or neuromuscular disorders. We also discuss the current progress and therapeutic approaches to targeting SERCA in vivo.

Reorganization of chromatin architecture during prenatal development of porcine skeletal muscle

Myofibres (primary and secondary myofibre) are the basic structure of muscle and the determinant of muscle mass. To explore the skeletal muscle developmental processes from primary myofibres to secondary myofibres in pigs, we conducted an integrative three-dimensional structure of genome and transcriptomic characterization of longissimus dorsi muscle of pig from primary myofibre formation stage [embryonic Day 35 (E35)] to secondary myofibre formation stage (E80). In the hierarchical genomic structure, we found that 11.43% of genome switched compartment A/B status, 14.53% of topologically associating domains are changed intradomain interactions (D-scores) and 2,730 genes with differential promoter–enhancer interactions and (or) enhancer activity from E35 to E80. The alterations of genome architecture were found to correlate with expression of genes that play significant roles in neuromuscular junction, embryonic morphogenesis, skeletal muscle development or metabolism, typically, NEFL, MuSK, SLN, Mef2D and GCK. Significantly, Sox6 and MATN2 play important roles in the process of primary to secondary myofibres formation and increase the regulatory potential score and genes expression in it. In brief, we reveal the genomic reorganization from E35 to E80 and construct genome-wide high-resolution interaction maps that provide a resource for studying long-range control of gene expression from E35 to E80.

Calibration of mammalian skeletal muscle Ca2+ transients recorded with the fast Ca2+ dye Mag-Fluo-4

BACKGROUND

Mag-Fluo-4 is increasingly employed for studying Ca²⁺ signaling in skeletal muscle; however, the lack of information on the Ca²⁺-Mag-Fluo-4 reaction limits its wider usage.

METHODS

Fluorescence and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC) experiments were performed to determine the binding stoichiometry (n) and thermodynamics (enthalpy (ΔH) and entropy (ΔS) changes), as well as the in vitro and in situ K_d of the Ca²⁺-Mag-Fluo-4 reaction. Rate constants (k_on, k_off), fluorescence maximum (F_max), minimum (F_min), and the dye compartmentalization were also estimated. Experiments in cells used enzymatically dissociated flexor digitorum brevis fibres of C57BL6, adult mice, loaded at room temperature for 8 min, with 6 μM Mag-Fluo-4, AM, and permeabilized with saponin or ionomycin. All measurements were done at 20 °C.

RESULTS

The in vitro fluorescence assays showed a binding stoichiometry of 0.5 for the Ca²⁺/Mag-Fluo-4 (n = 5) reaction. ITC results (n = 3) provided ΔH and ΔS values of 2.3 (0.7) kJ/mol and 97.8 (5.9) J/mol.K, respectively. The in situ K_d was 1.652 × 10⁵μM²(n = 58 fibres, R² = 0.99). With an F_max of 150.9 (8.8) A.U. (n = 8), F_min of 0.14 (0.1) A.U. (n = 10), and ΔF of Ca²⁺ transients of 8.4 (2.5) A.U. (n = 10), the sarcoplasmic [Ca²⁺]_peak reached 22.5 (7.8) μM. Compartmentalized dye amounted to only 1.1 (0.7)% (n = 10).

CONCLUSIONS

Two Mag-Fluo-4 molecules coalesce around one Ca²⁺ ion, in an entropy-driven, very low in situ affinity reaction, making it suitable to reliably track the kinetics of rapid muscle Ca²⁺ transients.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

Our results may be relevant to the quantitative study of Ca²⁺ kinetics in many other cell types.

A new set of equations for the simplified calibration of fluorescence Ca2+ transients in skeletal muscle fibers

The classical approach for calibrating non-ratiometric fluorescent Ca²⁺ dyes entails the measurement of the fluorescence maximum (F_max) and minimum (F_min), as well as the dissociation constant (Kd) of the Ca²⁺-Dye reaction (model 1). An alternative equation does not need the F_min but requires the rate constants k_on and k_off (model 2). However, both approaches are experimentally time consuming and the rate constants for several dyes are unknown. Here, we propose a set of equations (model 3) that simplify the calibration of fluorescent Ca²⁺ transients obtained with non-ratiometric dyes. This equation allows the calibration of signals without using the F_min: [Ca²⁺] = Kd(F - F_rest/F_max - F) + [Ca²⁺]_IR(F_max - F_rest/F_max - F), where [Ca²⁺]_IR is the resting [Ca²⁺]. If the classical calibration approach is followed, the F_min can be estimated from: F_min = F_rest - ([Ca²⁺]_IR(F_max - F_rest)/Kd). We tested the models' performance using signals obtained from enzymatically dissociated flexor digitorum brevis fibers of C57BL/6 mice loaded with Fluo-4, AM. Model 3 performed the same as model 2, and both gave peak [Ca²⁺] values 15 ± 0.3% (n = 3) lower than model 1, when we used our experimental F_min (1.24 ± 0.11 A.U., n = 4). However, when we used the mathematically estimated F_min (6.78 ± 0.2 A.U) for model 1, the peak [Ca²⁺] were similar for all three models. This suggests that the dye leakage makes a correct determination of the F_min unlikely and induces errors in the estimation of [Ca²⁺]. In conclusion, we propose simpler and time-saving equations that help to reliably calibrate cytosolic Ca²⁺ transients obtained with non-ratiometric fluorescent dyes. The use of the estimated F_min avoids the uncertainties associated with its experimental measurement.

Mechanotransduction and Adrenergic Stimulation in Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathy: An Overview of in vitro and in vivo Models

Arrhythmogenic Cardiomyopathy (AC) is a rare inherited heart disease, manifesting with progressive myocardium degeneration and dysfunction, and life-threatening arrhythmic events that lead to sudden cardiac death. Despite genetic determinants, most of AC patients admitted to hospital are athletes or very physically active people, implying the existence of other disease-causing factors. It is recognized that AC phenotypes are enhanced and triggered by strenuous physical activity, while excessive mechanical stretch and load, and repetitive adrenergic stimulation are mechanisms influencing disease penetrance. Different approaches have been undertaken to recapitulate and study both mechanotransduction and adrenergic signaling in AC, including the use of in vitro cellular and tissue models, and the development of in vivo models (particularly rodents but more recently also zebrafish). However, it remains challenging to reproduce mechanical load stimuli and physical activity in laboratory experimental settings. Thus, more work to drive the innovation of advanced AC models is needed to recapitulate these subtle physiological influences. Here, we review the state-of-the-art in this field both in clinical and laboratory-based modeling scenarios. Specific attention will be focused on highlighting gaps in the knowledge and how they may be resolved by utilizing novel research methodology.