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Madonna R. Angiocrine endothelium: From physiology to atherosclerosis and cardiac repair. Vascul Pharmacol 2022; 144:106993. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vph.2022.106993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/30/2022] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Valanti EK, Dalakoura-Karagkouni K, Fotakis P, Vafiadaki E, Mantzoros CS, Chroni A, Zannis V, Kardassis D, Sanoudou D. Reconstituted HDL-apoE3 promotes endothelial cell migration through ID1 and its downstream kinases ERK1/2, AKT and p38 MAPK. Metabolism 2022; 127:154954. [PMID: 34875308 DOI: 10.1016/j.metabol.2021.154954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Revised: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Atherosclerotic Coronary Artery Disease (ASCAD) is the leading cause of mortality worldwide. Novel therapeutic approaches aiming to improve the atheroprotective functions of High Density Lipoprotein (HDL) include the use of reconstituted HDL forms containing human apolipoprotein A-I (rHDL-apoA-I). Given the strong atheroprotective properties of apolipoprotein E3 (apoE3), rHDL-apoE3 may represent an attractive yet largely unexplored therapeutic agent. OBJECTIVE To evaluate the atheroprotective potential of rHDL-apoE3 starting with the unbiased assessment of global transcriptome effects and focusing on endothelial cell (EC) migration as a critical process in re-endothelialization and atherosclerosis prevention. The cellular, molecular and functional effects of rHDL-apoE3 on EC migration-associated pathways were assessed, as well as the potential translatability of these findings in vivo. METHODS Human Aortic ECs (HAEC) were treated with rHDL-apoE3 and total RNA was analyzed by whole genome microarrays. Expression and phosphorylation changes of key EC migration-associated molecules were validated by qRT-PCR and Western blot analysis in primary HAEC, Human Coronary Artery ECs (HCAEC) and the human EA.hy926 EC line. The capacity of rHDL-apoE3 to stimulate EC migration was assessed by wound healing and transwell migration assays. The contribution of MEK1/2, PI3K and the transcription factor ID1 in rHDL-apoE3-induced EC migration and activation of EC migration-related effectors was assessed using specific inhibitors (PD98059: MEK1/2, LY294002: PI3K) and siRNA-mediated gene silencing, respectively. The capacity of rHDL-apoE3 to improve vascular permeability and hypercholesterolemia in vivo was tested in a mouse model of hypercholesterolemia (apoE KO mice) using Evans Blue assays and lipid/lipoprotein analysis in the serum, respectively. RESULTS rHDL-apoE3 induced significant expression changes in 198 genes of HAEC mainly involved in re-endothelialization and atherosclerosis-associated functions. The most pronounced effect was observed for EC migration, with 42/198 genes being involved in the following EC migration-related pathways: 1) MEK/ERK, 2) PI3K/AKT/eNOS-MMP2/9, 3) RHO-GTPases, 4) integrin. rHDL-apoE3 induced changes in 24 representative transcripts of these pathways in HAEC, increasing the expression of their key proteins PIK3CG, EFNB2, ID1 and FLT1 in HCAEC and EA.hy926 cells. In addition, rHDL-apoE3 stimulated migration of HCAEC and EA.hy926 cells, and the migration was markedly attenuated in the presence of PD98059 or LY294002. rHDL-apoE3 also increased the phosphorylation of ERK1/2, AKT, eNOS and p38 MAPK in these cells, while PD98059 and LY294002 inhibited rHDL-apoE3-induced phosphorylation of ERK1/2, AKT and p38 MAPK, respectively. LY had no effect on rHDL-apoE3-mediated eNOS phosphorylation. ID1 siRNA markedly decreased EA.hy926 cell migration by inhibiting rHDL-apoE3-triggered ERK1/2 and AKT phosphorylation. Finally, administration of a single dose of rHDL-apoE3 in apoE KO mice markedly improved vascular permeability as demonstrated by the reduced concentration of Evans Blue dye in tissues such as the stomach, the tongue and the urinary bladder and ameliorated hypercholesterolemia. CONCLUSIONS rHDL-apoE3 significantly enhanced EC migration in vitro, predominantly via overexpression of ID1 and subsequent activation of MEK1/2 and PI3K, and their downstream targets ERK1/2, AKT and p38 MAPK, respectively, and improved vascular permeability in vivo. These novel insights into the rHDL-apoE3 functions suggest a potential clinical use to promote re-endothelialization and retard development of atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eftaxia-Konstantina Valanti
- 4th Department of Internal Medicine, Clinical Genomics and Pharmacogenomics Unit, 'Attikon' Hospital, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece; Molecular Biology Division, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Katerina Dalakoura-Karagkouni
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, University of Crete Medical School, Heraklion, Greece; Division of Gene Regulation and Genomics, Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology of Hellas, Heraklion, Greece
| | | | - Elizabeth Vafiadaki
- Molecular Biology Division, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | | | - Angeliki Chroni
- Institute of Biosciences and Applications, National Center for Scientific Research "Demokritos", Athens, Greece
| | - Vassilis Zannis
- Molecular Genetics, Boston University Medical School, Boston, USA
| | - Dimitris Kardassis
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, University of Crete Medical School, Heraklion, Greece; Division of Gene Regulation and Genomics, Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology of Hellas, Heraklion, Greece
| | - Despina Sanoudou
- 4th Department of Internal Medicine, Clinical Genomics and Pharmacogenomics Unit, 'Attikon' Hospital, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece; Molecular Biology Division, Biomedical Research Foundation of the Academy of Athens, Athens, Greece; Center for New Biotechnologies and Precision Medicine, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece.
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Qiu J, Li Y, Wang B, Sun X, Qian D, Ying Y, Zhou J. The Role and Research Progress of Inhibitor of Differentiation 1 in Atherosclerosis. DNA Cell Biol 2022; 41:71-79. [PMID: 35049366 PMCID: PMC8863915 DOI: 10.1089/dna.2021.0745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibitor of differentiation 1 has a helix-loop-helix (HLH) structure, belongs to a class of molecules known as the HLH trans-acting factor family, and plays an important role in advancing the cell cycle, promoting cell proliferation and inhibiting cell differentiation. Recent studies have confirmed that inhibitor of differentiation 1 plays an important role in the endothelial-mesenchymal transition of vascular endothelial cells, angiogenesis, reendothelialization after injury, and the formation and rupture of atherosclerotic plaques. An in-depth understanding of the role of inhibitor of differentiation 1 in atherosclerosis will provide new ideas and strategies for the treatment of related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Qiu
- Department of Cardiology, Medicine School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, China.,Department of Cardiology, Lihuili Hospital Affiliated to Ningbo University, Ningbo, China.,Department of Cardiology, Ningbo Institute of Innovation for Combined Medicine and Engineering (NIIME), Ningbo, China
| | - Youhong Li
- Department of Cardiology, Medicine School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - BingYu Wang
- Department of Cardiology, Medicine School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, China.,Department of Cardiology, Lihuili Hospital Affiliated to Ningbo University, Ningbo, China.,Department of Cardiology, Ningbo Institute of Innovation for Combined Medicine and Engineering (NIIME), Ningbo, China
| | - XinYi Sun
- Department of Cardiology, Medicine School of Ningbo University, Ningbo, China.,Department of Cardiology, Lihuili Hospital Affiliated to Ningbo University, Ningbo, China.,Department of Cardiology, Ningbo Institute of Innovation for Combined Medicine and Engineering (NIIME), Ningbo, China
| | - Dingding Qian
- Department of Cardiology, Lihuili Hospital Affiliated to Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Yuchen Ying
- Department of Cardiology, Lihuili Hospital Affiliated to Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
| | - Jianqing Zhou
- Department of Cardiology, Lihuili Hospital Affiliated to Ningbo University, Ningbo, China
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Lu J, Zhao YL, Zhang XQ, Li LJ. The vascular endothelial growth factor signaling pathway regulates liver sinusoidal endothelial cells during liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy. Expert Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2021; 15:139-147. [PMID: 32902336 DOI: 10.1080/17474124.2020.1815532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy is a very complex and well-regulated procedure. It utilizes all liver cell types, which are associated with signaling pathways involving growth factors, cytokines, and stimulatory and inhibitory feedback of several growth-related signals. Liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs) contribute to liver regeneration after partial hepatectomy. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) has various functions in LSECs. In this review, we summarize the relationship between VEGF and LSECs involving VEGF regulatory activity in the vascular endothelium. AREAS COVERED Maintenance of the fenestrated LSEC phenotype requires two VEGF pathways: VEGF stimulated-NO acting through the cGMP pathway and VEGF independent of nitric oxide (NO). The results suggest that VEGF is a key regenerating mediator of LSECs in the partial hepatectomy model. NO-independent pathway was also essential to the maintenance of the LSEC in liver regeneration. EXPERT OPINION Liver regeneration remains a fascinating and significative research field in recent years. The liver involved of molecular pathways except for LSEC-VEGF pathways that make the field of liver further depth studies should be put into effect to elaborate the undetermined confusions, which will be better to understand liver regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Lu
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Medicine School, Zhejiang University , Hangzhou, China
| | - Ya-Lei Zhao
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Medicine School, Zhejiang University , Hangzhou, China
| | - Xiao-Qian Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Medicine School, Zhejiang University , Hangzhou, China
| | - Lan-Juan Li
- State Key Laboratory for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, Collaborative Innovation Center for Diagnosis and Treatment of Infectious Diseases, The First Affiliated Hospital of Medicine School, Zhejiang University , Hangzhou, China
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Gadomski S, Singh SK, Singh S, Sarkar T, Klarmann KD, Berenschot M, Seaman S, Jakubison B, Gudmundsson KO, Lockett S, Keller JR. Id1 and Id3 Maintain Steady-State Hematopoiesis by Promoting Sinusoidal Endothelial Cell Survival and Regeneration. Cell Rep 2020; 31:107572. [PMID: 32348770 PMCID: PMC8459380 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.107572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2019] [Revised: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Investigating mechanisms that regulate endothelial cell (EC) growth and survival is important for understanding EC homeostasis and how ECs maintain stem cell niches. We report here that targeted loss of Id genes in adult ECs results in dilated, leaky sinusoids and a pro-inflammatory state that increases in severity over time. Disruption in sinusoidal integrity leads to increased hematopoietic stem cell (HSC) proliferation, differentiation, migration, and exhaustion. Mechanistically, sinusoidal ECs (SECs) show increased apoptosis because of reduced Bcl2-family gene expression following Id gene ablation. Furthermore, Id1-/-Id3-/- SECs and upstream type H vessels show increased expression of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors p21 and p27 and impaired ability to proliferate, which is rescued by reducing E2-2 expression. Id1-/-Id3-/- mice do not survive sublethal irradiation because of impaired vessel regeneration and hematopoietic failure. Thus, Id genes are required for the survival and regeneration of BM SECs during homeostasis and stress to maintain HSC development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Gadomski
- Mouse Cancer Genetics Program, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Satyendra K Singh
- Mouse Cancer Genetics Program, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Shweta Singh
- Mouse Cancer Genetics Program, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Tanmoy Sarkar
- Mouse Cancer Genetics Program, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Kimberly D Klarmann
- Mouse Cancer Genetics Program, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; Basic Science Program, Leidos Biomedical Research Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Maximillian Berenschot
- Mouse Cancer Genetics Program, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Steven Seaman
- Mouse Cancer Genetics Program, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Brad Jakubison
- Mouse Cancer Genetics Program, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; Basic Science Program, Leidos Biomedical Research Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Kristbjorn O Gudmundsson
- Mouse Cancer Genetics Program, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; Basic Science Program, Leidos Biomedical Research Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Stephen Lockett
- Optical Microscopy and Analysis Laboratory, Leidos Biomedical Research Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21702, USA
| | - Jonathan R Keller
- Mouse Cancer Genetics Program, Center for Cancer Research, NCI, Frederick, MD 21702, USA; Basic Science Program, Leidos Biomedical Research Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, MD 21702, USA.
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Lafoz E, Ruart M, Anton A, Oncins A, Hernández-Gea V. The Endothelium as a Driver of Liver Fibrosis and Regeneration. Cells 2020; 9:E929. [PMID: 32290100 PMCID: PMC7226820 DOI: 10.3390/cells9040929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2020] [Revised: 04/05/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Liver fibrosis is a common feature of sustained liver injury and represents a major public health problem worldwide. Fibrosis is an active research field and discoveries in the last years have contributed to the development of new antifibrotic drugs, although none of them have been approved yet. Liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSEC) are highly specialized endothelial cells localized at the interface between the blood and other liver cell types. They lack a basement membrane and display open channels (fenestrae), making them exceptionally permeable. LSEC are the first cells affected by any kind of liver injury orchestrating the liver response to damage. LSEC govern the regenerative process initiation, but aberrant LSEC activation in chronic liver injury induces fibrosis. LSEC are also main players in fibrosis resolution. They maintain liver homeostasis and keep hepatic stellate cell and Kupffer cell quiescence. After sustained hepatic injury, they lose their phenotype and protective properties, promoting angiogenesis and vasoconstriction and contributing to inflammation and fibrosis. Therefore, improving LSEC phenotype is a promising strategy to prevent liver injury progression and complications. This review focuses on changes occurring in LSEC after liver injury and their consequences on fibrosis progression, liver regeneration, and resolution. Finally, a synopsis of the available strategies for LSEC-specific targeting is provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Lafoz
- Unidad de Hemodinámica Hepática, Servicio de Hepatología, Hospital Clínic, Universidad de Barcelona, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Augusto Pi Suñer (IDIBAPS), 08036 Barcelona, Spain; (E.L.); (M.R.); (A.A.); (A.O.)
| | - Maria Ruart
- Unidad de Hemodinámica Hepática, Servicio de Hepatología, Hospital Clínic, Universidad de Barcelona, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Augusto Pi Suñer (IDIBAPS), 08036 Barcelona, Spain; (E.L.); (M.R.); (A.A.); (A.O.)
| | - Aina Anton
- Unidad de Hemodinámica Hepática, Servicio de Hepatología, Hospital Clínic, Universidad de Barcelona, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Augusto Pi Suñer (IDIBAPS), 08036 Barcelona, Spain; (E.L.); (M.R.); (A.A.); (A.O.)
| | - Anna Oncins
- Unidad de Hemodinámica Hepática, Servicio de Hepatología, Hospital Clínic, Universidad de Barcelona, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Augusto Pi Suñer (IDIBAPS), 08036 Barcelona, Spain; (E.L.); (M.R.); (A.A.); (A.O.)
| | - Virginia Hernández-Gea
- Unidad de Hemodinámica Hepática, Servicio de Hepatología, Hospital Clínic, Universidad de Barcelona, Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Augusto Pi Suñer (IDIBAPS), 08036 Barcelona, Spain; (E.L.); (M.R.); (A.A.); (A.O.)
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas (CIBERehd), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
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Chen WC, Chung CH, Lu YC, Wu MH, Chou PH, Yen JY, Lai YW, Wang GS, Liu SC, Cheng JK, Wu YJ, Yeh HI, Wang LY, Wang SW. BMP-2 induces angiogenesis by provoking integrin α6 expression in human endothelial progenitor cells. Biochem Pharmacol 2018; 150:256-266. [PMID: 29458046 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2018.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2017] [Accepted: 02/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) is a multifunctional cytokine, capable of governing several cellular functions, including proliferation, motility, differentiation, and angiogenesis. Circulating endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) have been shown to facilitate tissue repair, postnatal neovascularization, and tumor associated angiogenesis. Nevertheless, the impact of BMP-2 on angiogenesis of human EPCs has largely remained a mystery. In this study, we found that BMP-2 promoted cell migration and tube formation of EPCs in a concentration-dependent manner, indicating BMP-2 induced in vitro angiogenesis in human EPCs. Furthermore, BMP-2 significantly increased microvessel formation in Matrigel plug assay, and BMP-2 antagonist noggin prevented BMP-2-induced in vivo angiogenesis. Mechanistic investigations showed BMP-2 profoundly induced the expression of Id-1 and integrin α6 as well as EPCs angiogenesis by activating PI3K/Akt and MEK/ERK signaling pathways. Moreover, knockdown of Id-1 and integrin α6 by siRNA transfection obviously attenuated BMP-2-indueced tube formation of EPCs. These results suggest that BMP-2 promotes angiogenesis in human EPCs through the activation of PI3K/Akt, MEK/ERK, and Id-1/integrin α6 signaling cascades. This is the first demonstration that BMP-2 exhibits the angiogenesis property on human EPCs. BMP-2 might serve as the potential therapeutic target for treatment of angiogenesis-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei-Cheng Chen
- Department of Orthopaedics, Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Hu Chung
- Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Yung-Chang Lu
- Department of Orthopaedics, Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Min-Huan Wu
- Sports Recreation and Health Management Continuing Studies, Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan; Physical Education Office, Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Po-Hsun Chou
- Department of Orthopaedics, Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Juei-Yu Yen
- Department of Orthopaedics, Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Wei Lai
- Division of Urology, Taipei City Hospital Renai Branch, Taiwan; Department of Urology, National Yang-Ming University School of Medicine, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Guo-Shou Wang
- Department of Orthopaedics, Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Chia Liu
- Department of Orthopaedics, Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Jen-Kun Cheng
- Department of Orthopaedics, Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Anesthesiology, Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Yih-Jer Wu
- Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei City, Taiwan; Department of Internal Medicine, Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hung-I Yeh
- Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei City, Taiwan; Department of Internal Medicine, Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Li-Yu Wang
- Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Shih-Wei Wang
- Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei City, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Natural Products, College of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
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Abstract
This update focuses on two main topics. First, recent developments in our understanding of liver sinusoidal endothelial cell (LSEC) function will be reviewed, specifically elimination of blood-borne waste, immunological function of LSECs, interaction of LSECs with liver metastases, LSECs and liver regeneration, and LSECs and hepatic fibrosis. Second, given the current emphasis on rigor and transparency in biomedical research, the update discusses the need for standardization of methods to demonstrate identity and purity of isolated LSECs, pitfalls in methods that might lead to a selection bias in the types of LSECs isolated, and questions about long-term culture of LSECs. Various surface markers used for immunomagnetic selection are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurie D. DeLeve
- Division of Gastrointestinal and Liver Diseases and the USC Research Center for Liver Diseases, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Ana C. Maretti-Mira
- Division of Gastrointestinal and Liver Diseases and the USC Research Center for Liver Diseases, Keck School of Medicine of the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California
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