Implications for MicroRNA involvement in the prognosis and treatment of atherosclerosis

Unraveling the miRNA Puzzle in Atherosclerosis: Revolutionizing Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Therapeutic Approaches

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To eradicate atherosclerotic diseases, novel biomarkers, and future therapy targets must reveal the burden of early atherosclerosis (AS), which occurs before life-threatening unstable plaques form. The chemical and biological features of microRNAs (miRNAs) make them interesting biomarkers for numerous diseases. We summarized the latest research on miRNA regulatory mechanisms in AS progression studies, which may help us use miRNAs as biomarkers and treatments for difficult-to-treat diseases.

RECENT FINDINGS

Recent research has demonstrated that miRNAs have a regulatory function in the observed changes in gene and protein expression during atherogenesis, the process that leads to atherosclerosis. Several miRNAs play a role in the development of atherosclerosis, and these miRNAs could potentially serve as non-invasive biomarkers for atherosclerosis in various regions of the body. These miRNAs have the potential to serve as biomarkers and targets for early treatment of atherosclerosis. The start and development of AS require different miRNAs. It reviews new research on miRNAs affecting endothelium, vascular smooth muscle, vascular inflammation, lipid retention, and cholesterol metabolism in AS. A miRNA gene expression profile circulates with AS everywhere. AS therapies include lipid metabolism, inflammation reduction, and oxidative stress inhibition. Clinical use of miRNAs requires tremendous progress. We think tiny miRNAs can enable personalized treatment.

Monocytic microRNAs-Novel targets in atherosclerosis therapy

Atherosclerosis is a chronic proinflammatory disease of the vascular wall resulting in narrowing of arteries due to plaque formation, thereby causing reduced blood supply that is the leading cause for diverse end-organ damage with high mortality rates. Monocytes/macrophages, activated by elevated circulating lipoproteins, are significantly involved in the formation and development of atherosclerotic plaques. The imbalance between proinflammatory and anti-inflammatory macrophages, arising from dysregulated macrophage polarization, appears to be a driving force in this process. Proatherosclerotic processes acting on monocytes/macrophages include accumulation of cholesterol in macrophages leading to foam cell formation, as well as dysfunctional efferocytosis, all of which contribute to the formation of unstable plaques. In recent years, microRNAs (miRs) were identified as factors that could modulate monocyte/macrophage function and may therefore interfere with the atherosclerotic process. In this review, we present effects of monocyte/macrophage-derived miRs on atherosclerotic processes in order to reveal new treatment options using miRmimics or antagomiRs.

PCSK9i promoting the transformation of AS plaques into a stable plaque by targeting the miR-186-5p/Wipf2 and miR-375-3p/Pdk1/Yap1 in ApoE-/- mice

Background

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a multifaceted disease characterized by disruptions in lipid metabolism, vascular inflammation, and the involvement of diverse cellular constituents. Recent investigations have progressively underscored the role of microRNA (miR) dysregulation in cardiovascular diseases, notably AS. Proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 inhibitors (PCSK9i) can effectively reduce circulating levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and lipoprotein (a) [Lp (a)], potentially fostering a more enduring phenotype for AS plaques. However, the underlying mechanisms by which PCSK9i enhances plaque stability remain unclear. In this study, we used microarray and bioinformatics techniques to analyze the regulatory impacts on gene expression pertinent to AS, thereby unveiling potential mechanisms underlying the plaque-stabilizing attributes of PCSK9i.

Methods

ApoE-/- mice were randomly allocated into control, AS, PCSK9i, and Atorvastatin groups. The AS model was induced through a high-fat diet (HFD), succeeded by interventions: the PCSK9i group was subjected to subcutaneous SBC-115076 injections (8 mg/kg, twice weekly), and the Atorvastatin group received daily oral Atorvastatin (10 mg/kg) while on the HFD. Subsequent to the intervention phase, serum analysis, histological assessment using hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and Oil Red O staining, microarray-centered miRNA analysis utilizing predictions from TargetScan and miRTarBase, and analyses using Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) were executed to illuminate potential pathways. Real-time fluorescence quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) was employed to quantify the expression levels of target genes.

Results

In comparison to the control group, the AS group displayed a significant elevation in blood lipid levels. Both PCSK9i and Atorvastatin effectively attenuated blood lipid levels, with PCSK9i exhibiting a more pronounced lipid-lowering impact, particularly concerning TG and LDL-C levels. Over the course of AS progression, the expression levels of mmu-miR-134, mmu-miR-141-5p, mmu-miR-17-3p, mmu-miR-195-3p, mmu-miR-210, mmu-miR-33-5p, mmu-miR-410, mmu-miR-411-5p, mmu-miR-499, mmu-miR-672-5p, mmu-miR-675-3p, and mmu-miR-301b underwent dynamic fluctuations. PCSK9i significantly down-regulated the expression of mmu-miR-186-5p, mmu-miR-222, mmu-miR-375-3p, and mmu-miR-494-3p. Further enrichment analysis disclosed that mmu-miR-186-5p, mmu-miR-222, mmu-miR-375-3p, and mmu-miR-494-3p were functionally enriched for cardiovascular smooth muscle cell proliferation, migration, and regulation. RT-qPCR results manifested that, in comparison to the AS group, PCSK9i significantly upregulated the expression of Wipf2, Pdk1, and Yap1 (p < 0.05).

Conclusion

Aberrant miRNA expression may play a pivotal role in AS progression in murine models of AS. The subcutaneous administration of PCSK9i exerted anti-atherosclerotic effects by targeting the miR-186-5p/Wipf2 and miR-375-3p/Pdk1/Yap1 axes, thereby promoting the transition of AS plaques into a more stable form.

Atherosclerosis and Its Related Laboratory Biomarkers

Atherosclerosis constitutes a persistent inflammatory ailment, serving as the predominant underlying condition for coronary artery disease (CAD), peripheral artery disease (PAD), and cerebrovascular disease. The progressive buildup of plaques within the walls of medium- and large-caliber arteries characterizes the atherosclerotic process. This accumulation results in significant narrowing that impedes blood flow, leading to critical tissue oxygen deficiency. Spontaneous blockage of thrombotic vessels can precipitate stroke and myocardial infarction, which are complications representing the primary global causes of mortality. Present-day models for predicting cardiovascular risk incorporate conventional risk factors to gauge the likelihood of cardiovascular events over a ten-year span. In recent times, researchers have identified serum biomarkers associated with an elevated risk of atherosclerotic events. Many of these biomarkers, whether used individually or in combination, have been integrated into risk prediction models to assess whether their inclusion enhances predictive accuracy. In this review, we have conducted a comprehensive analysis of the most recently published literature concerning serum biomarkers associated with atherosclerosis. We have explored the potential utility of incorporating these markers in guiding clinical decisions.

Regulation of oxidized LDL-induced proliferation and migration in human vascular smooth muscle cells by a novel circ_0007478/miR-638/ROCK2 ceRNA network

BACKGROUND

Circular RNAs (circRNAs) have been implicated in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis (AS) and the migration and proliferation of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) under oxidized low-density lipoprotein (ox-LDL). Here, we defined the exact action of human circ_0007478 in VSMC migration and proliferation induced by ox-LDL.

METHODS

Human VSMCs (HVSMCs) were exposed to ox-LDL. Circ_0007478, microRNA (miR)-638, and rho-associated protein kinase 2 (ROCK2) levels were gauged by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) and western blot. Cell viability and proliferation were assessed by MTT and EdU assays, respectively. Transwell assays were used to detect cell migration and invasion. Dual-luciferase reporter and RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) assays were used to evaluate the direct relationship between miR-638 and circ_0007478 or ROCK2.

RESULTS

Our data indicated that circ_0007478 expression was augmented in AS serum samples and ox-LDL-treated HVSMCs. Depletion of circ_0007478 attenuated HVSMC proliferation, migration, and invasion induced by ox-LDL. Mechanistically, circ_0007478 targeted miR-638 by directly pairing to miR-638. Reduction of miR-638 reversed the effects of circ_0007478 depletion on ox-LDL-evoked proliferation, migration, and invasion in HVSMCs. ROCK2 was a direct miR-638 target and miR-638-mediated inhibition of ROCK2 relieved ox-LDL-evoked HVSMC proliferation, migration, and invasion. Furthermore, circ_0007478 was identified as a competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) for miR-638 to modulate ROCK2 expression.

CONCLUSION

Our present study establishes an undescribed ceRNA regulatory network, in which circ_0007478 targets miR-638 to upregulate ROCK2, thereby contributing to ox-LDL-induced proliferation and migration in HVSMCs.

Cardiovascular Risk Assessment in Rheumatoid Arthritis: Accelerated Atherosclerosis, New Biomarkers, and the Effects of Biological Therapy

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA), one of the most common of the chronic inflammatory autoimmune diseases (CIADs), is recognized as an independent cardiovascular risk factor. Traditional risk factors such as smoking, arterial hypertension, dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, and obesity are frequently found in RA. Given the increased risk of mortality and morbidity associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD) in RA patients, screening for risk factors is important. Moreover, there is a need to identify potential predictors of subclinical atherosclerosis. Recent studies have shown that markers such as serum homocysteine, asymmetric dimethylarginine, or carotid intima-media thickness (cIMT) are correlated with cardiovascular risk. Although RA presents a cardiovascular risk comparable to that of diabetes, it is not managed as well in terms of acute cardiovascular events. The introduction of biological therapy has opened new perspectives in the understanding of this pathology, confirming the involvement and importance of the inflammatory markers, cytokines, and the immune system. In addition to effects in inducing remission and slowing disease progression, most biologics have demonstrated efficacy in reducing the risk of major cardiovascular events. Some studies have also been conducted in patients without RA, with similar results. However, early detection of atherosclerosis and the use of targeted therapies are the cornerstone for reducing cardiovascular risk in RA patients.

MiR-140-3p directly targets Tyro3 to regulate OGD/R-induced neuronal injury through the PI3K/Akt pathway

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are highly expressed in the central nervous system and play important roles in ischaemic stroke pathogenesis. However, the role of miRNAs in cerebral ischaemia-reperfusion injury remains unclear. Here, we investigated the role of miR-140-3p in regulating oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R)-induced neuronal injury in vitro to identify a new biomarker for research on ischaemic stroke.

METHODS

The differential expression of miR-140-3p and Tyro3 in OGD/R-exposed N2a cells was verified by qRT-PCR. N2a cells were transfected with miR-140-3p mimic, miR-140-3p inhibitor, Tyro3 or siTyro3, and qRT-PCR, Western blotting, the Cell counting kit-8 (CCK-8) assay, Hoechst 33342/PI staining and flow cytometry analyses were performed to measure miRNA, mRNA and protein expression; cell viability; and apoptosis.

RESULTS

OGD/R-exposed N2a cells exhibited increased miR-140-3p expression, decreased viability, reduced Bcl-2 protein expression and increased Bax and Caspase-3 protein expression and apoptosis; the miR-140-3p mimic markedly amplified these changes, exacerbating OGD/R-induced injury to N2a cells, while the miR-140-3p inhibitor reversed these changes and alleviated OGD/R-induced injury. OGD/R-exposed N2a cells expressed less Tyro3, and Tyro3 overexpression increased cell viability and Bcl-2 protein expression, reduced Bax and Caspase-3 protein expression, and alleviated OGD/R-induced injury. However, silencing Tyro3 reversed these changes and exacerbated OGD/R-induced injury. MiR-140-3p directly bound the Tyro3 mRNA 3'UTR. Rescue experiments indicated that the miR-140-3p mimic-induced changes in cell viability and protein expression were alleviated by Tyro3 overexpression and that the miR-140-3p inhibitor-induced changes in cell viability and protein expression were alleviated by silencing Tyro3. Tyro3 overexpression increased cell viability and PI3K and p-Akt protein expression, but these effects were weakened by the addition of LY294002.

CONCLUSIONS

MiR-140-3p directly targets Tyro3 to regulate cell viability and apoptosis of OGD/R-exposed N2a cells through the PI3K/Akt pathway, suggesting that miR-140-3p is a novel biomarker and therapeutic target for ischaemic stroke.

JAK2/STAT3 in role of arsenic-induced cell proliferation: a systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES

Malignant cell proliferation is one of the important mechanisms of arsenic poisoning. A large number of studies have shown that STAT3 plays an important role in cell malignant proliferation, but there are still many contradictions in the effect of arsenic on JAK2/STAT3. This study aims to explore the role of JAK2/STAT3 in arsenic-induced cell proliferation.

METHODS

By taking normal cells as the research object and using Standard Mean Difference (SMD) as the effect size, meta-analysis was used to explore the effect of arsenic on JAK2/STAT3. Then, the dose-effect Meta was used to further clarify the dose-effect relationship of arsenic on JAK2/STAT3.

RESULTS

Through meta-analysis, this study found that arsenic could promote the phosphorylation of STAT3 (SMD=4.21, 95%CI [1.05, 7.37]), and increase IL-6 and p-JAK2, Vimentin, VEGF expression levels, thereby inducing malignant cell proliferation. In addition, this study also found that arsenic exposure dose (<5 μmol m^-3), time(<24 h) and cell type were important sources of heterogeneity in the process of exploring the effects of arsenic on p-STAT3, IL-6 and p-JAK2. Dose-effect relationship meta-analysis results showed that arsenic exposure significantly increased the expression level of IL-6. When the arsenic exposure concentration was less than 7 μmol m^-3, the expression level of p-JAK2 upregulated significantly as the arsenic exposure concentration gradually increasing. Moreover, the expression level of p-STAT3 elevated significantly with the gradual increase of the arsenic concentration under 5 μmol m^-3 of arsenic exposure, but the expression level of p-STAT3 gradually decreases when the concentration is greater than 5 μmol m^-3.

CONCLUSIONS

Exposure to low dose of arsenic could promote the expression of JAK2/STAT3 and induce the malignant proliferation of cells through upregulating IL-6, and there was dose-effect relationship among them.

miR-99a-5p: A Potential New Therapy for Atherosclerosis by Targeting mTOR and Then Inhibiting NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation and Promoting Macrophage Autophagy

Objective

MicroRNAs have been revealed to be involved in the development of atherosclerosis. The present study is aimed at exploring the potential of miR-99a-5p as a therapy for atherosclerosis. We suspected that miR-99a-5p might inhibit NLRP3 inflammasome activation and promote macrophage autophagy via constraining mTOR, therefore, alleviating atherosclerosis.

Methods

The cell viability in ox-LDL-induced THP-1 macrophages was assessed by CCK-8 assay. Bioinformatic analysis was used to predict the target genes of miR-99a-5p. The binding between miR-99a-5p and mTOR was confirmed by luciferase reporter assay. In vivo, a high-fat-diet-induced atherosclerosis model was established in apolipoprotein E knockout mice. Hematoxylin-eosin, oil red O, and Sirius red staining were performed for the determination of atherosclerotic lesions. MTOR and associated protein levels were detected by Western blot analysis.

Results

miR-99a-5p inhibited NLRP3 inflammasome activation and promoted macrophage autophagy by targeting mTOR. Enforced miR-99a-5p significantly reduced the levels of inflammasome complex and inflammatory cytokines. Furthermore, miR-99a-5p overexpression inhibited the expression of mTOR, whereas mTOR overexpression reversed the trend of the above behaviors. In vivo, the specific overexpression of miR-99a-5p significantly reduced atherosclerotic lesions, accompanied by a significant downregulation of autophagy marker CD68 protein expression.

Conclusion

We demonstrated for the first time that miR-99a-5p may be considered a therapy for atherosclerosis. The present study has revealed that miR-99a-5p might inhibit NLRP3 inflammasome activation and promote macrophage autophagy by targeting mTOR, therefore, alleviating atherosclerosis.

The Profile of Circulating Blood microRNAs in Outpatients with Vulnerable and Stable Atherosclerotic Plaques: Associations with Cardiovascular Risks

Non-coding RNAs reflect many biological processes in the human body, including athero-sclerosis. In a cardiology outpatient department cohort (N = 83), we aimed to compare the levels of circulating microRNAs in groups with vulnerable plaques (N = 22), stable plaques (N = 23) and plaque-free (N = 17) depending on coronary computed tomography angiography and to evaluate associations of microRNA levels with calculated cardiovascular risks (CVR), based on the SCORE2 (+OP), ACC/AHA, ATP-III and MESA scales. Coronary computed tomography was performed on a 640-slice computed tomography scanner. Relative plasma levels of microRNA were assessed via a real-time polymerase chain reaction. We found significant differences in miR-143-3p levels (p = 0.0046 in plaque-free vs. vulnerable plaque groups) and miR-181b-5p (p = 0.0179 in stable vs. vulnerable plaques groups). Analysis of microRNA associations with CVR did not show significant differences for SCORE2 (+OP) and ATPIII scales. MiR-126-5p and miR-150-5p levels were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in patients with ACC/AHA risk >10% and miR-145-5p had linear relationships with ACC/AHA score (adjusted p = 0.0164). The relative plasma level of miR-195 was higher (p < 0.05) in patients with MESA risk > 7.5% and higher (p < 0.05) in patients with zero coronary calcium index (p = 0.036). A linear relationship with coronary calcium was observed for miR-126-3p (adjusted p = 0.0484). A positive correlation with high coronary calcium levels (> 100 Agatson units) was found for miR-181-5p (p = 0.036). Analyzing the biological pathways of these microRNAs, we suggest that miR-143-3p and miR-181-5p can be potential markers of the atherosclerosis process. Other miRNAs (miR-126-3p, 126-5p, 145-5p, 150-5p, 195-5p) can be considered as potential cardiovascular risk modifiers, but it is necessary to validate our results in a large prospective trial.

LongShengZhi alleviated cardiac remodeling via upregulation microRNA-150-5p with matrix metalloproteinase 14 as the target

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

LongShengZhi capsule (LSZ), a traditional Chinese medicine, is used for treatment of patients with vascular diseases. LSZ reduced doxorubicin-induced heart failure by reducing production of reactive oxygen species and inhibiting inflammation and apoptosis.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study was to explore whether LSZ could alleviate cardiac remodeling via upregulation of microRNA (miR)-150-5p and the downstream target. Cardiac remodeling was induced by Ang II in vivo and in vitro.

RESULTS

LSZ attenuated Ang II-induced cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis in rats, and in primary cardiomyocytes (CMs) and primary cardiac fibroblasts (CFs). MiR-150-5p was downregulated in Ang II-induced rat heart, CMs and CFs, and these decreases were reserved by LSZ. In vivo overexpression of miR-150-5p by transfection of miR-150-5p agomiR protected Ang II-induced cardiac hypertrophy and fibrosis in rats. Meanwhile, its overexpression also reversed Ang II-induced upregulation of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), brain natriuretic peptide (BNP) and β-myosin heavy chain (β-MHC) in rat hearts and primary CMs, as well as upregulation of collagen I, collagen III and transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) in rat hearts and primary CFs. Matrix metalloproteinase 14 (MMP14) was validated as the target gene of miR-150-5p, which was overexpressed in Ang II-induced rat heart, rat primary CMs and primary CFs. Notably, overexpression of MMP14 induced cardiac remodeling, and reversed the protective role of miR-150-5p in downregulating Ang II-induced upregulation of hypertrophy and fibrosis markers in vitro.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, LSZ protects Ang II-induced cardiac dysfunction and remodeling via upregulation of miR-150-5p to target MMP14. Administration of LSZ, upregulation of miR-150-5p or targeting of MMP14 may be strategies for cardiac remodeling therapy.

Acetylsalicylic Acid Suppresses Alcoholism-Induced Cognitive Impairment Associated with Atorvastatin Intake by Targeting Cerebral miRNA155 and NLRP3: In Vivo, and In Silico Study

Alcoholism is one of the most common diseases that can lead to the development of several chronic diseases including steatosis, and cognitive dysfunction. Statins are lipid-lowering drugs that are commonly prescribed for patients with fatty liver diseases; however, the exact effect of statins on cognitive function is still not fully understood. In the present study, we have investigated the molecular and microscopic basis of cognitive impairment induced by alcohol and/or Atorvastatin (ATOR) administration to male Wistar albino rats and explored the possible protective effect of acetylsalicylic acid (ASA). The biochemical analysis indicated that either alcohol or ATOR or together in combination produced a significant increase in the nucleotide-binding domain–like receptor 3 (NLRP3), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) miRNA155 expression levels in the frontal cortex of the brain tissue. The histological and morphometric analysis showed signs of degeneration in the neurons and the glial cells with aggregations of inflammatory cells and a decrease in the mean thickness of the frontal cortex. Immunohistochemical analysis showed a significant increase in the caspase-8 immunoreaction in the neurons and glial cells of the frontal cortex. Interestingly, administration of ASA reversed the deleterious effect of the alcohol and ATOR intake and improved the cognitive function as indicated by biochemical and histological analysis. ASA significantly decreased the expression levels of miRNA155, NLRP3, and IL1B, and produced a significant decrease in caspase-8 immunoreaction in the neurons and glial cells of the frontal cortex with a reduction in the process of neuroinflammation and neuronal damage. To further investigate these findings, we have performed an extensive molecular docking study to investigate the binding affinity of ASA to the binding pockets of the NLRP3 protein. Our results indicated that ASA has high binding scores toward the active sites of the NLRP3 NACHT domain with the ability to bind to the NLRP3 pockets by a set of hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions. Taken together, the present study highlights the protective pharmacological effect of ASA to attenuate the deleterious effect of alcohol intake and long term ATOR therapy on the cognitive function via targeting miRNA155 and NLRP3 proteins.

Emerging roles of non-coding RNAs in the metabolic reprogramming of tumor-associated macrophages

Macrophages are the most common immune cells in the tumor microenvironment, and tumor-associated macrophages play an important role in cancer development. Metabolic reprogramming is important for the functional plasticity of macrophages. Studies investigating the relevance of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) in human cancer found that ncRNAs can regulate the metabolism of cancer cells and tumor-associated macrophages. NcRNAs include short ncRNAs, long ncRNAs (lncRNAs), and circular RNAs (circRNAs). The most common short ncRNAs are microRNAs, which regulate glucose, lipid, and amino acid metabolism in macrophages by acting on metabolism-related pathways and targeting metabolism-related enzymes and proteins, and are therefore involved in cancer progression. The role of lncRNAs and circRNAs in the metabolism of tumor-associated macrophages remains unclear. LncRNAs affect the glucose metabolism of macrophages, whereas their role in lipid and amino acid metabolism is not clear. CircRNAs regulate amino acid metabolism in macrophages. The roles of ncRNAs in energy metabolism and the underlying mechanisms need to be investigated further. Here, we summarize recent findings on the involvement of ncRNAs in metabolic reprogramming in tumor-associated macrophages, which affect the tumor microenvironment and play important roles in the development of cancer. Improving our understanding of the effects of ncRNAs on metabolic reprogramming of tumor-associated macrophages may facilitate the development of effective clinical therapies.