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Kim H, Takegahara N, Choi Y. PP2A-Mediated GSK3β Dephosphorylation Is Required for Protocadherin-7-Dependent Regulation of Small GTPase RhoA in Osteoclasts. Cells 2023; 12:1967. [PMID: 37566044 PMCID: PMC10417323 DOI: 10.3390/cells12151967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 07/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/27/2023] [Indexed: 08/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Protocadherin-7 (Pcdh7) is a member of the non-clustered protocadherin δ1 subgroup of the cadherin superfamily. Pcdh7 has been revealed to control osteoclast differentiation by regulating Rho-family small GTPases, RhoA and Rac1, through its intracellular SET binding domain. However, the mechanisms by which small GTPases are regulated downstream of Pcdh7 remain unclear. Here, we demonstrate that protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A)-mediated dephosphorylation of Glycogen synthase kinase-3β (GSK3β) is required for Pcdh7-dependent activation of RhoA during osteoclast differentiation. Pcdh7-deficient (Pcdh7-/-) cells showed impaired PP2A activity, despite their normal expression of PP2A. GSK3β, whose activity is regulated by its inhibitory phosphorylation at Ser9, was dephosphorylated during osteoclast differentiation in a Pcdh7-dependent manner. Inhibition of protein phosphatase by okadaic acid reduced dephosphorylation of GSK3β in Pcdh7+/+ cells, while activation of PP2A by DT-061 rescued impaired dephosphorylation of GSK3β in Pcdh7-/- cells. Inhibition of GSK3β by AR-A014418 inhibited RANKL-induced RhoA activation and osteoclast differentiation in Pcdh7+/+ cells. On the other hand, DT-061 treatment rescued impaired RhoA activation and RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation in Pcdh7-/- cells. Taken together, these results demonstrate that PP2A dephosphorylates GSK3β and thereby activates it in a Pcdh7-dependent manner, which is required for activation of small GTPase RhoA and proper osteoclast differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yongwon Choi
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (H.K.); (N.T.)
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Bi-allelic variants in neuronal cell adhesion molecule cause a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by developmental delay, hypotonia, neuropathy/spasticity. Am J Hum Genet 2022; 109:518-532. [PMID: 35108495 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2022.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell adhesion molecules are membrane-bound proteins predominantly expressed in the central nervous system along principal axonal pathways with key roles in nervous system development, neural cell differentiation and migration, axonal growth and guidance, myelination, and synapse formation. Here, we describe ten affected individuals with bi-allelic variants in the neuronal cell adhesion molecule NRCAM that lead to a neurodevelopmental syndrome of varying severity; the individuals are from eight families. This syndrome is characterized by developmental delay/intellectual disability, hypotonia, peripheral neuropathy, and/or spasticity. Computational analyses of NRCAM variants, many of which cluster in the third fibronectin type III (Fn-III) domain, strongly suggest a deleterious effect on NRCAM structure and function, including possible disruption of its interactions with other proteins. These findings are corroborated by previous in vitro studies of murine Nrcam-deficient cells, revealing abnormal neurite outgrowth, synaptogenesis, and formation of nodes of Ranvier on myelinated axons. Our studies on zebrafish nrcamaΔ mutants lacking the third Fn-III domain revealed that mutant larvae displayed significantly altered swimming behavior compared to wild-type larvae (p < 0.03). Moreover, nrcamaΔ mutants displayed a trend toward increased amounts of α-tubulin fibers in the dorsal telencephalon, demonstrating an alteration in white matter tracts and projections. Taken together, our study provides evidence that NRCAM disruption causes a variable form of a neurodevelopmental disorder and broadens the knowledge on the growing role of the cell adhesion molecule family in the nervous system.
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Kim H, Takegahara N, Choi Y. Protocadherin-7 Regulates Osteoclast Differentiation through Intracellular SET-Binding Domain-Mediated RhoA and Rac1 Activation. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:13117. [PMID: 34884920 PMCID: PMC8658210 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222313117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Revised: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Protocadherin-7 (Pcdh7) is a member of the non-clustered protocadherin δ1 subgroup of the cadherin superfamily. Although the cell-intrinsic role of Pcdh7 in osteoclast differentiation has been demonstrated, the molecular mechanisms of Pcdh7 regulating osteoclast differentiation remain to be determined. Here, we demonstrate that Pcdh7 contributes to osteoclast differentiation by regulating small GTPases, RhoA and Rac1, through its SET oncoprotein binding domain. Pcdh7 is associated with SET along with RhoA and Rac1 during osteoclast differentiation. Pcdh7-deficient (Pcdh7-/-) cells showed abolished RANKL-induced RhoA and Rac1 activation, and impaired osteoclast differentiation. Impaired osteoclast differentiation in Pcdh7-/- cells was restored by retroviral transduction of full-length Pcdh7 but not by a Pcdh7 mutant that lacks SET binding domain. The direct crosslink of the Pcdh7 intracellular region induced the activation of RhoA and Rac1, which was not observed when Pcdh7 lacks the SET binding domain. Additionally, retroviral transduction of the constitutively active form of RhoA and Rac1 completely restored the impaired osteoclast differentiation in Pcdh7-/- cells. Collectively, these results demonstrate that Pcdh7 controls osteoclast differentiation by regulating RhoA and Rac1 activation through the SET binding domain.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yongwon Choi
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA; (H.K.); (N.T.)
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Finegan TM, Bergstralh DT. Neuronal immunoglobulin superfamily cell adhesion molecules in epithelial morphogenesis: insights from Drosophila. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2020; 375:20190553. [PMID: 32829687 PMCID: PMC7482216 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In this review, we address the function of immunoglobulin superfamily cell adhesion molecules (IgCAMs) in epithelia. Work in the Drosophila model system in particular has revealed novel roles for calcium-independent adhesion molecules in the morphogenesis of epithelial tissues. We review the molecular composition of lateral junctions with a focus on their IgCAM components and reconsider the functional roles of epithelial lateral junctions. The epithelial IgCAMs discussed in this review have well-defined roles in the nervous system, particularly in the process of axon guidance, suggesting functional overlap and conservation in mechanism between that process and epithelial remodelling. We expand on the hypothesis that epithelial occluding junctions and synaptic junctions are compositionally equivalent and present a novel hypothesis that the mechanism of epithelial cell (re)integration and synaptic junction formation are shared. We highlight the importance of considering non-cadherin-based adhesion in our understanding of the mechanics of epithelial tissues and raise questions to direct future work. This article is part of the discussion meeting issue 'Contemporary morphogenesis'.
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Shang J, Wan Y, Liu C, Yount B, Gully K, Yang Y, Auerbach A, Peng G, Baric R, Li F. Structure of mouse coronavirus spike protein complexed with receptor reveals mechanism for viral entry. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008392. [PMID: 32150576 PMCID: PMC7082060 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 03/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Coronaviruses recognize a variety of receptors using different domains of their envelope-anchored spike protein. How these diverse receptor recognition patterns affect viral entry is unknown. Mouse hepatitis coronavirus (MHV) is the only known coronavirus that uses the N-terminal domain (NTD) of its spike to recognize a protein receptor, CEACAM1a. Here we determined the cryo-EM structure of MHV spike complexed with mouse CEACAM1a. The trimeric spike contains three receptor-binding S1 heads sitting on top of a trimeric membrane-fusion S2 stalk. Three receptor molecules bind to the sides of the spike trimer, where three NTDs are located. Receptor binding induces structural changes in the spike, weakening the interactions between S1 and S2. Using protease sensitivity and negative-stain EM analyses, we further showed that after protease treatment of the spike, receptor binding facilitated the dissociation of S1 from S2, allowing S2 to transition from pre-fusion to post-fusion conformation. Together these results reveal a new role of receptor binding in MHV entry: in addition to its well-characterized role in viral attachment to host cells, receptor binding also induces the conformational change of the spike and hence the fusion of viral and host membranes. Our study provides new mechanistic insight into coronavirus entry and highlights the diverse entry mechanisms used by different viruses. Coronaviruses recognize many receptors using their envelope-anchored spike protein. The role of receptor binding in coronavirus entry into host cells is a fundamental question in virology. Mouse hepatitis coronavirus (MHV) is unique among all coronaviruses in that it uses the N-terminal domain (NTD) of its spike protein to bind a protein receptor CEACAM1a. While extensive research has been performed on the cell entry mechanisms of coronaviruses that use a different domain of their spike protein for receptor binding, the cell entry mechanism for MHV is still elusive. Here we determined the cryo-EM structure of MHV spike protein complexed with CEACAM1a. The structure reveals unique features of receptor binding by MHV spike that facilitate the structural changes of MHV spike and promote cell entry of MHV. We further confirmed the structural results with biochemical and negative-stain EM analyses. These results suggest that receptor binding plays dual roles in MHV entry: it promotes both viral attachment to host cells and the fusion of host and viral membranes. Our study provides insight into the molecular mechanism of MHV entry, demonstrating how cell entry of MHV has been adapted to its unique way of receptor binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Shang
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Yushun Wan
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Chang Liu
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Boyd Yount
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Kendra Gully
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Yang Yang
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Ashley Auerbach
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States of America
| | - Guiqing Peng
- College of Life Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, China
| | - Ralph Baric
- Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Fang Li
- Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Kim H, Takegahara N, Walsh MC, Middleton SA, Yu J, Shirakawa J, Ueda J, Fujihara Y, Ikawa M, Ishii M, Kim J, Choi Y. IgSF11 regulates osteoclast differentiation through association with the scaffold protein PSD-95. Bone Res 2020; 8:5. [PMID: 32047704 PMCID: PMC7010662 DOI: 10.1038/s41413-019-0080-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2019] [Revised: 09/16/2019] [Accepted: 09/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Osteoclasts are multinucleated, giant cells derived from myeloid progenitors. While receptor activator of NF-κB ligand (RANKL) stimulation is the primary driver of osteoclast differentiation, additional signaling further contributes to osteoclast maturation. Here, we demonstrate that immunoglobulin superfamily member 11 (IgSF11), whose expression increases during osteoclast differentiation, regulates osteoclast differentiation through interaction with postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD-95), a scaffold protein with multiple protein interaction domains. IgSF11 deficiency in vivo results in impaired osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption but no observed defect in bone formation. Consequently, IgSF11-deficient mice exhibit increased bone mass. Using in vitro osteoclast culture systems, we show that IgSF11 functions through homophilic interactions. Additionally, we demonstrate that impaired osteoclast differentiation in IgSF11-deficient cells is rescued by full-length IgSF11 and that the IgSF11-PSD-95 interaction requires the 75 C-terminal amino acids of IgSF11. Our findings reveal a critical role for IgSF11 during osteoclast differentiation and suggest a role for IgSF11 in a receptor- and signal transduction molecule-containing protein complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyunsoo Kim
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
| | - Noriko Takegahara
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
| | - Matthew C. Walsh
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
| | - Sarah A. Middleton
- Department of Biology, Department of Computer and Information Science, School of Arts and Sciences, Program in Single Cell Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
| | - Jiyeon Yu
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
| | - Jumpei Shirakawa
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
| | - Jun Ueda
- Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871 Japan
| | - Yoshitaka Fujihara
- Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871 Japan
| | - Masahito Ikawa
- Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871 Japan
| | - Masaru Ishii
- Department of Immunology and Cell Biology, Graduate School of Medicine and Frontier Biosciences, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka 565-0871 Japan
| | - Junhyong Kim
- Department of Biology, Department of Computer and Information Science, School of Arts and Sciences, Program in Single Cell Biology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
| | - Yongwon Choi
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Pennsylvania Perelman School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19104 USA
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Penn-Nicholson A, Hraha T, Thompson EG, Sterling D, Mbandi SK, Wall KM, Fisher M, Suliman S, Shankar S, Hanekom WA, Janjic N, Hatherill M, Kaufmann SHE, Sutherland J, Walzl G, De Groote MA, Ochsner U, Zak DE, Scriba TJ. Discovery and validation of a prognostic proteomic signature for tuberculosis progression: A prospective cohort study. PLoS Med 2019; 16:e1002781. [PMID: 30990820 PMCID: PMC6467365 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1002781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2018] [Accepted: 03/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A nonsputum blood test capable of predicting progression of healthy individuals to active tuberculosis (TB) before clinical symptoms manifest would allow targeted treatment to curb transmission. We aimed to develop a proteomic biomarker of risk of TB progression for ultimate translation into a point-of-care diagnostic. METHODS AND FINDINGS Proteomic TB risk signatures were discovered in a longitudinal cohort of 6,363 Mycobacterium tuberculosis-infected, HIV-negative South African adolescents aged 12-18 years (68% female) who participated in the Adolescent Cohort Study (ACS) between July 6, 2005 and April 23, 2007, through either active (every 6 months) or passive follow-up over 2 years. Forty-six individuals developed microbiologically confirmed TB disease within 2 years of follow-up and were selected as progressors; 106 nonprogressors, who remained healthy, were matched to progressors. Over 3,000 human proteins were quantified in plasma with a highly multiplexed proteomic assay (SOMAscan). Three hundred sixty-one proteins of differential abundance between progressors and nonprogressors were identified. A 5-protein signature, TB Risk Model 5 (TRM5), was discovered in the ACS training set and verified by blind prediction in the ACS test set. Poor performance on samples 13-24 months before TB diagnosis motivated discovery of a second 3-protein signature, 3-protein pair-ratio (3PR) developed using an orthogonal strategy on the full ACS subcohort. Prognostic performance of both signatures was validated in an independent cohort of 1,948 HIV-negative household TB contacts from The Gambia (aged 15-60 years, 66% female), longitudinally followed up for 2 years between March 5, 2007 and October 21, 2010, sampled at baseline, month 6, and month 18. Amongst these contacts, 34 individuals progressed to microbiologically confirmed TB disease and were included as progressors, and 115 nonprogressors were included as controls. Prognostic performance of the TRM5 signature in the ACS training set was excellent within 6 months of TB diagnosis (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve [AUC] 0.96 [95% confidence interval, 0.93-0.99]) and 6-12 months (AUC 0.76 [0.65-0.87]) before TB diagnosis. TRM5 validated with an AUC of 0.66 (0.56-0.75) within 1 year of TB diagnosis in the Gambian validation cohort. The 3PR signature yielded an AUC of 0.89 (0.84-0.95) within 6 months of TB diagnosis and 0.72 (0.64-0.81) 7-12 months before TB diagnosis in the entire South African discovery cohort and validated with an AUC of 0.65 (0.55-0.75) within 1 year of TB diagnosis in the Gambian validation cohort. Signature validation may have been limited by a systematic shift in signal magnitudes generated by differences between the validation assay when compared to the discovery assay. Further validation, especially in cohorts from non-African countries, is necessary to determine how generalizable signature performance is. CONCLUSIONS Both proteomic TB risk signatures predicted progression to incident TB within a year of diagnosis. To our knowledge, these are the first validated prognostic proteomic signatures. Neither meet the minimum criteria as defined in the WHO Target Product Profile for a progression test. More work is required to develop such a test for practical identification of individuals for investigation of incipient, subclinical, or active TB disease for appropriate treatment and care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Penn-Nicholson
- South African Tuberculosis Vaccine Initiative, Division of Immunology, Department of Pathology and Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Thomas Hraha
- SomaLogic, Inc., Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Ethan G. Thompson
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - David Sterling
- SomaLogic, Inc., Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Stanley Kimbung Mbandi
- South African Tuberculosis Vaccine Initiative, Division of Immunology, Department of Pathology and Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Kirsten M. Wall
- SomaLogic, Inc., Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Michelle Fisher
- South African Tuberculosis Vaccine Initiative, Division of Immunology, Department of Pathology and Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Sara Suliman
- South African Tuberculosis Vaccine Initiative, Division of Immunology, Department of Pathology and Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Smitha Shankar
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Willem A. Hanekom
- South African Tuberculosis Vaccine Initiative, Division of Immunology, Department of Pathology and Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Nebojsa Janjic
- SomaLogic, Inc., Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Mark Hatherill
- South African Tuberculosis Vaccine Initiative, Division of Immunology, Department of Pathology and Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | | | - Jayne Sutherland
- Medical Research Council Unit, The Gambia at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Fajara, The Gambia
| | - Gerhard Walzl
- DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Biomedical TB Research and MRC Centre for TB Research, Division of Molecular Biology and Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Tygerberg, South Africa
| | | | - Urs Ochsner
- SomaLogic, Inc., Boulder, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Daniel E. Zak
- Center for Infectious Disease Research, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Thomas J. Scriba
- South African Tuberculosis Vaccine Initiative, Division of Immunology, Department of Pathology and Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
- * E-mail:
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Ettensohn CA, Dey D. KirrelL, a member of the Ig-domain superfamily of adhesion proteins, is essential for fusion of primary mesenchyme cells in the sea urchin embryo. Dev Biol 2016; 421:258-270. [PMID: 27866905 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2016.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2016] [Revised: 11/01/2016] [Accepted: 11/01/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
In the sea urchin embryo, primary mesenchyme cells (PMCs) adhere to one another and fuse via filopodia, forming cable-like structures within which skeletal rods are deposited. Although this process was first described more than a century ago, molecules that participate in PMC adhesion and fusion have not been identified. Here we show that KirrelL, a PMC-specific, Ig domain-containing transmembrane protein, is essential for PMC fusion, probably by mediating filopodial adhesions that are a pre-requisite for subsequent membrane fusion. We show that KirrelL is not required for PMC specification, migration, or for direct filopodial contacts between PMCs. In the absence of KirrelL, however, filopodial contacts do not result in fusion. kirrelL is a member of a family of closely related, intronless genes that likely arose through an echinoid-specific gene expansion, possibly via retrotransposition. Our findings are significant in that they establish a direct linkage between the transcriptional network deployed in the PMC lineage and an effector molecule required for a critically important PMC morphogenetic process. In addition, our results point to a conserved role for Ig domain-containing adhesion proteins in facilitating cell fusion in both muscle and non-muscle cell lineages during animal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles A Ettensohn
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States.
| | - Debleena Dey
- Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, United States
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Schreiber J, Langhorst H, Jüttner R, Rathjen FG. The IgCAMs CAR, BT-IgSF, and CLMP: Structure, Function, and Diseases. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2014; 8:21-45. [DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4614-8090-7_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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