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Tarawneh R. Microvascular Contributions to Alzheimer Disease Pathogenesis: Is Alzheimer Disease Primarily an Endotheliopathy? Biomolecules 2023; 13:830. [PMID: 37238700 PMCID: PMC10216678 DOI: 10.3390/biom13050830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 05/07/2023] [Accepted: 05/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer disease (AD) models are based on the notion that abnormal protein aggregation is the primary event in AD, which begins a decade or longer prior to symptom onset, and culminates in neurodegeneration; however, emerging evidence from animal and clinical studies suggests that reduced blood flow due to capillary loss and endothelial dysfunction are early and primary events in AD pathogenesis, which may precede amyloid and tau aggregation, and contribute to neuronal and synaptic injury via direct and indirect mechanisms. Recent data from clinical studies suggests that endothelial dysfunction is closely associated with cognitive outcomes in AD and that therapeutic strategies which promote endothelial repair in early AD may offer a potential opportunity to prevent or slow disease progression. This review examines evidence from clinical, imaging, neuropathological, and animal studies supporting vascular contributions to the onset and progression of AD pathology. Together, these observations support the notion that the onset of AD may be primarily influenced by vascular, rather than neurodegenerative, mechanisms and emphasize the importance of further investigations into the vascular hypothesis of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rawan Tarawneh
- Department of Neurology, Center for Memory and Aging, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, NM 87106, USA
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2
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Zhu D, Zhu Y, Liu L, He X, Fu S. Metabolomic analysis of vascular cognitive impairment due to hepatocellular carcinoma. Front Neurol 2023; 13:1109019. [PMID: 37008043 PMCID: PMC10062391 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2022.1109019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2022] [Accepted: 12/26/2022] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
IntroductionScreening for metabolically relevant differentially expressed genes (DEGs) shared by hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and vascular cognitive impairment (VCI) to explore the possible mechanisms of HCC-induced VCI.MethodsBased on metabolomic and gene expression data for HCC and VCI, 14 genes were identified as being associated with changes in HCC metabolites, and 71 genes were associated with changes in VCI metabolites. Multi-omics analysis was used to screen 360 DEGs associated with HCC metabolism and 63 DEGs associated with VCI metabolism.ResultsAccording to the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database, 882 HCC-associated DEGs were identified and 343 VCI-associated DEGs were identified. Eight genes were found at the intersection of these two gene sets: NNMT, PHGDH, NR1I2, CYP2J2, PON1, APOC2, CCL2, and SOCS3. The HCC metabolomics prognostic model was constructed and proved to have a good prognostic effect. The HCC metabolomics prognostic model was constructed and proved to have a good prognostic effect. Following principal component analyses (PCA), functional enrichment analyses, immune function analyses, and TMB analyses, these eight DEGs were identified as possibly affecting HCC-induced VCI and the immune microenvironment. As well as gene expression and gene set enrichment analyses (GSEA), a potential drug screen was conducted to investigate the possible mechanisms involved in HCC-induced VCI. The drug screening revealed the potential clinical efficacy of A-443654, A-770041, AP-24534, BI-2536, BMS- 509744, CGP-60474, and CGP-082996.ConclusionHCC-associated metabolic DEGs may influence the development of VCI in HCC patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Zhu
- Xinqiao Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Yamei Zhu
- Deptartment of Infectious Diseases, Wuhua Ward, 920th Hospital of Joint Logistics Support Force of Chinese PLA, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Lin Liu
- Dalian Hunter Information Consulting Co. LTD, Dalian, China
| | - Xiaoxue He
- Xinqiao Hospital, Army Medical University (Third Military Medical University), Chongqing, China
| | - Shizhong Fu
- Deptartment of Infectious Diseases, Wuhua Ward, 920th Hospital of Joint Logistics Support Force of Chinese PLA, Kunming, Yunnan, China
- *Correspondence: Shizhong Fu ;
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3
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Wu S, Huang R, Zhang R, Xiao C, Wang L, Luo M, Song N, Zhang J, Yang F, Liu X, Yang W. Gastrodin and Gastrodigenin Improve Energy Metabolism Disorders and Mitochondrial Dysfunction to Antagonize Vascular Dementia. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28062598. [PMID: 36985572 PMCID: PMC10059574 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28062598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Revised: 02/26/2023] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Vascular dementia (VD) is the second most common dementia syndrome worldwide, and effective treatments are lacking. Gastrodia elata Blume (GEB) has been used in traditional Chinese herbal medicine for centuries to treat cognitive impairment, ischemic stroke, epilepsy, and dizziness. Gastrodin (p-hydroxymethylphenyl-b-D-glucopyranoside, Gas) and Gastrodigenin (p-hydroxybenzyl alcohol, HBA) are the main bioactive components of GEB. This study explored the effects of Gas and HBA on cognitive dysfunction in VD and their possible molecular mechanisms. The VD model was established by bilateral common carotid artery ligation (2-vessel occlusion, 2-VO) combined with an intraperitoneal injection of sodium nitroprusside solution. One week after modeling, Gas (25 and 50 mg/kg, i.g.) and HBA (25 and 50 mg/kg, i.g.) were administered orally for four weeks, and the efficacy was evaluated. A Morris water maze test and passive avoidance test were used to observe their cognitive function, and H&E staining and Nissl staining were used to observe the neuronal morphological changes; the expressions of Aβ1-42 and p-tau396 were detected by immunohistochemistry, and the changes in energy metabolism in the brain tissue of VD rats were analyzed by targeted quantitative metabolomics. Finally, a Hippocampus XF analyzer measured mitochondrial respiration in H2O2-treated HT-22 cells. Our study showed that Gas and HBA attenuated learning memory dysfunction and neuronal damage and reduced the accumulation of Aβ1-42, P-Tau396, and P-Tau217 proteins in the brain tissue. Furthermore, Gas and HBA improved energy metabolism disorders in rats, involving metabolic pathways such as glycolysis, tricarboxylic acid cycle, and the pentose phosphate pathway, and reducing oxidative damage-induced cellular mitochondrial dysfunction. The above results indicated that Gas and HBA may exert neuroprotective effects on VD by regulating energy metabolism and mitochondrial function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sha Wu
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Pharmacology for Natural Products, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Rong Huang
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Pharmacology for Natural Products, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Ruiqin Zhang
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Center of TCM Chemical Biology, Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Chuang Xiao
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Pharmacology for Natural Products, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Lueli Wang
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Pharmacology for Natural Products, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Min Luo
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Pharmacology for Natural Products, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Na Song
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Pharmacology for Natural Products, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Jie Zhang
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Pharmacology for Natural Products, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Fang Yang
- School of Basic Medicine, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China
| | - Xuan Liu
- Shanghai Frontiers Science Center of TCM Chemical Biology, Institute of Interdisciplinary Integrative Medicine Research, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai 201203, China
- Correspondence: (X.L.); (W.Y.)
| | - Weimin Yang
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Pharmacology for Natural Products, Kunming Medical University, Kunming 650500, China
- Correspondence: (X.L.); (W.Y.)
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Hart G, Huang CW, Rust N, Wu HF. Altered O-GlcNAcylation and mitochondrial dysfunction, a molecular link between brain glucose dysregulation and sporadic Alzheimer’s disease. Neural Regen Res 2023; 18:779-783. [DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.354515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
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Hui HYH, Ran AR, Dai JJ, Cheung CY. Deep Reinforcement Learning-Based Retinal Imaging in Alzheimer's Disease: Potential and Perspectives. J Alzheimers Dis 2023; 94:39-50. [PMID: 37212112 DOI: 10.3233/jad-230055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) remains a global health challenge in the 21st century due to its increasing prevalence as the major cause of dementia. State-of-the-art artificial intelligence (AI)-based tests could potentially improve population-based strategies to detect and manage AD. Current retinal imaging demonstrates immense potential as a non-invasive screening measure for AD, by studying qualitative and quantitative changes in the neuronal and vascular structures of the retina that are often associated with degenerative changes in the brain. On the other hand, the tremendous success of AI, especially deep learning, in recent years has encouraged its incorporation with retinal imaging for predicting systemic diseases. Further development in deep reinforcement learning (DRL), defined as a subfield of machine learning that combines deep learning and reinforcement learning, also prompts the question of how it can work hand in hand with retinal imaging as a viable tool for automated prediction of AD. This review aims to discuss potential applications of DRL in using retinal imaging to study AD, and their synergistic application to unlock other possibilities, such as AD detection and prediction of AD progression. Challenges and future directions, such as the use of inverse DRL in defining reward function, lack of standardization in retinal imaging, and data availability, will also be addressed to bridge gaps for its transition into clinical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herbert Y H Hui
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - An Ran Ran
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Jia Jia Dai
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Carol Y Cheung
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
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Cognitive Impairments and blood-brain Barrier Damage in a Mouse Model of Chronic Cerebral Hypoperfusion. Neurochem Res 2022; 47:3817-3828. [DOI: 10.1007/s11064-022-03799-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2022] [Revised: 10/07/2022] [Accepted: 10/16/2022] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
AbstractChronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH) is commonly involved in various brain diseases. Tight junction proteins (TJs) are key components constituting the anatomical substrate of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Changes in cognitive function and BBB after CCH and their relationship need further exploration. To investigate the effect of CCH on cognition and BBB, we developed a bilateral common carotid artery stenosis (BCAS) model in Tie2-GFP mice. Mice manifested cognitive impairments accompanied with increased microglia after the BCAS operation. BCAS mice also exhibited increased BBB permeability at all time points set from D1 to D42. Furthermore, BCAS mice showed reduced expression of TJs 42 d after the operation. In addition, correct entrances of mice in radial arm maze test had a moderate negative correlation with EB extravasation. Our data suggested that BCAS could lead to cognitive deficits, microglia increase and BBB dysfunction characterized by increased BBB permeability and reduced TJs expression level. BBB permeability may be involved in the cognitive impairments induced by CCH.
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Weigand AJ, Hamlin AM, Breton J, Clark AL. Cerebral blood flow, tau imaging, and memory associations in cognitively unimpaired older adults. CEREBRAL CIRCULATION - COGNITION AND BEHAVIOR 2022; 3:100153. [PMID: 36353072 PMCID: PMC9637859 DOI: 10.1016/j.cccb.2022.100153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 10/11/2022] [Accepted: 10/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Objective Cerebral blood flow (CBF) has been independently linked to cognitive impairment and traditional Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology (e.g., amyloid-beta [Aβ], tau) in older adults. However, less is known about the possible interactive effects of CBF, Aβ, and tau on memory performance. The present study examined whether CBF moderates the effect of Aβ and tau on objective and subjective memory within cognitively unimpaired (CU) older adults. Methods Participants included 54 predominately white CU older adults from the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative. Multiple linear regression models examined meta-temporal CBF associations with (1) meta-temporal tau PET adjusting for cortical Aβ PET and (2) and cortical Aβ PET adjusting for tau PET. The CBF and tau meta region was an average of 5 distinct temporal lobe regions. CBF interactions with Aβ or tau PET on memory performance were also examined. Covariates for all models included age, sex, education, pulse pressure, APOE-ε4 positivity, and imaging acquisition date differences. Results CBF was significantly negatively associated with tau PET (t = -2.16, p = .04) but not Aβ PET (t = 0.98, p = .33). Results revealed a CBF by tau PET interaction such that there was a stronger effect of tau PET on objective (t = 2.51, p = .02) and subjective (t = -2.67, p = .01) memory outcomes among individuals with lower levels of CBF. Conclusions Cerebrovascular and tau pathologies may interact to influence cognitive performance. This study highlights the need for future vascular risk interventions, which could offer a scalable and cost-effective method for AD prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra J. Weigand
- San Diego State University/University of California San Diego Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology, United States
| | - Abbey M. Hamlin
- Department of Psychology, College of Liberal Arts, University of Texas at Austin, 108 East Dean Keeton, SEA 3.234, Austin, TX 78712, United States
| | - Jordana Breton
- Department of Psychology, College of Liberal Arts, University of Texas at Austin, 108 East Dean Keeton, SEA 3.234, Austin, TX 78712, United States
| | - Alexandra L. Clark
- Department of Psychology, College of Liberal Arts, University of Texas at Austin, 108 East Dean Keeton, SEA 3.234, Austin, TX 78712, United States
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Tanaka R, Hattori N. Abnormal circadian blood pressure regulation and cognitive impairment in α-synucleinopathies. Hypertens Res 2022; 45:1908-1917. [PMID: 36123397 DOI: 10.1038/s41440-022-01032-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2022] [Revised: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Circadian blood pressure (BP) rhythm is important for the maintenance of healthy daily life, and its disruption is associated with poor outcomes. Cardiovascular autonomic failure is often observed in older populations but has a greater impact on neurodegenerative disorders such as α-synucleinopathies. These BP abnormalities include orthostatic hypotension (OH), supine hypertension (SH), and a loss of nocturnal BP fall. OH not only causes falls or syncope but is also related to cognitive impairment in α-synucleinopathies. For example, OH doubles or triples the risk for the development of cognitive impairment in Parkinson's disease (PD). The diffuse central and peripheral neuropathology of α-synuclein may contribute to both OH and cognitive impairment. Moreover, repeated cerebral hypoperfusion in OH is thought to be related to cerebrovascular and neuronal damage, which may cause cognitive impairment. SH, which often coexists with OH, is also associated with cognitive impairment through cerebrovascular damage, such as white matter lesions and cerebral microbleeds. The reverse-dipping (riser) pattern on ambulatory BP monitoring is commonly observed in PD (∼56%), regardless of disease duration and severity. It is also related to cognitive impairment and more pronounced when coexisting with OH. These abnormal circadian BP profiles may be synergistically associated with cognitive impairment and poor outcomes in α-synucleinopathies. Although evidence for aggressive control of BP dysregulation improving cognitive impairment and outcomes is limited, regular BP monitoring appears to be important for total management of α-synucleinopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryota Tanaka
- Stroke Center and Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, Jichi Medical University, Yakushiji 3311-1, Shimotsuke-shi, Tochigi, 329-0498, Japan.
| | - Nobutaka Hattori
- Department of Neurology, Juntendo University School of Medicine, Hongo 3311-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-0011, Japan
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Ouyang M, Zhang Q, Shu J, Wang Z, Fan J, Yu K, Lei L, Li Y, Wang Q. Capsaicin Ameliorates the Loosening of Mitochondria-Associated Endoplasmic Reticulum Membranes and Improves Cognitive Function in Rats With Chronic Cerebral Hypoperfusion. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 16:822702. [PMID: 35370565 PMCID: PMC8968035 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.822702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 02/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Based on accumulating evidence, vascular factors contribute to cognitive decline and dementia. Mitochondrial dysfunction is the core pathophysiological mechanism. Mitochondria-associated endoplasmic reticulum membranes (MAMs) are subcellular structures that physically and biologically connect mitochondria with the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and regulate multiple functions ranging from calcium transfer to mitochondrial dynamics and bioenergetics. MAMs dysfunction has been speculated to be a key factor contributing to the pathogenesis of cognitive disorders and a new therapeutic target. However, the alteration of MAMs in vascular cognitive impairment remains to be revealed. Capsaicin, a specific agonist known to activated the transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1), is involved in hippocampal synaptic plasticity and memory, but the detailed mechanism is still unclear. In this study, chronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH) model rats were created by bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (BCCAO), which is a widely used model to study vascular dementia. We observed that CCH rats showed obvious cognitive deficits, and ER-mitochondria contacts were loosener with lower expression of mitofusin2 (MFN2), a key protein connecting MAMs, in the hippocampal CA1 region, compared to the sham group. After capsaicin treatment for 12 weeks, we found that cognitive deficits induced by CCH were significantly alleviated and loosened ER-mitochondrial interactions were obviously improved. In conclusion, the findings of this study highlight that MAMs may contribute to the pathogenesis of cognitive impairment induced by CCH, and our new evidence that capsaicin improves cognitive function highlights a novel opportunity for drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengqi Ouyang
- Department of Neurology, The General Hospital of Western Theater Command, Chengdu, China
| | - Qi Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, Gaoping District People’s Hospital of Nanchong, Nanchong, China
| | - Jiahui Shu
- Department of Pharmacology, Yichang Yiling Hospital, Yichang, China
| | - Zhiqiang Wang
- Department of Neurology, Chengdu BOE Hospital, Chengdu, China
| | - Jin Fan
- Department of Neurology, The General Hospital of Western Theater Command, Chengdu, China
| | - Ke Yu
- Department of Neurology, The General Hospital of Western Theater Command, Chengdu, China
| | - Lei Lei
- Department of Neurology, The General Hospital of Western Theater Command, Chengdu, China
| | - Yuxia Li
- Department of Neurology, Chengdu BOE Hospital, Chengdu, China
| | - Qingsong Wang
- Department of Neurology, The General Hospital of Western Theater Command, Chengdu, China
- *Correspondence: Qingsong Wang,
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Ma X, Ji C. Remote Ischemic Conditioning: A Potential Treatment for Chronic Cerebral Hypoperfusion. Eur Neurol 2022; 85:253-259. [PMID: 35104816 DOI: 10.1159/000521803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH) is a clinical syndrome, which is characterized by significantly decreased cerebral blood flow (CBF). CCH is a common consequence of cerebrovascular and cardiovascular diseases and the elderly. CCH results in a series of pathological damages, increasing cell death, autophagy dysfunction, amyloid β (Aβ) peptide accumulation, blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption, and endothelial damage, which are found in CCH models. In addition, CCH is a prominent risk factor of cognitive impairment, such as vascular dementia, and CCH contributes to the occurrence and development of Alzheimer's disease. Therefore, the treatment of patients with CCH is of great value. It has been confirmed that remote ischemic conditioning (RIC) is a safe, promising treatment for acute and chronic cerebrovascular diseases. RIC significantly increases CBF in both CCH models and patients, inhibits neuronal apoptosis, reduces Aβ deposition, protects BBB integrity and endothelial function, alleviates neuroinflammation, improves cognitive impairment, and exerts neuroprotection. SUMMARY With the development of animal models, the pathophysiological mechanisms of CCH and RIC are increasingly revealed. Key Messages: We discuss the mechanisms related to hypoperfusion in the brain and explore the potential treatment of RIC for CCH to promote its transformation and application in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Ma
- Department of General Practice Medicine, Dalian Municipal Central Hospital, Dalian, China
| | - Chenhua Ji
- Department of General Practice Medicine, Dalian Municipal Central Hospital, Dalian, China
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Xue X, Duan R, Zhang QQ, Wang SY, Gong PY, Yan E, Zhang YD, Jiang T. A non-peptidic MAS1 agonist AVE0991 alleviates hippocampal synaptic degeneration in rats with chronic cerebral hypoperfusion. Curr Neurovasc Res 2021; 18:343-350. [PMID: 34636310 DOI: 10.2174/1567202618666211012095210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Revised: 07/10/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH) is a contributing factor for neurodegenerative diseases. As a recently identified heptapeptide of the brain renin-angiotensin system, angiotensin-(1-7) was revealed to activate its receptor MAS1 and thus ameliorated cognitive impairments in rats with CCH. Since hippocampal synaptic degeneration represents an important pathological basis of cognitive deficits, we hypothesize that activation of MAS1-mediated signaling may alleviate CCH-induced synaptic degeneration in the hippocampus. METHODS In this study, we tested this hypothesis and uncovered the underlying mechanisms in a rat model of CCH induced by bilateral common carotid artery ligation surgery. At 1 week after the surgery, rats received a daily intraperitoneal injection of vehicle or a non-peptidic MAS1 agonist AVE0991 for 8 weeks. During this procedure, cerebral blood flow (CBF) was recorded. The levels of MAS1, amyloid-β (Aβ), neuroinflammatory cytokines, glial cell markers and synaptophysin in the hippocampus were assessed at the end of the treatment period. RESULTS We showed that AVE0991 significantly alleviated hippocampal synaptic degeneration in rats with CCH. This protection might be achieved by facilitating CBF recovery, reducing hippocampal Aβ levels and suppressing neuroinflammatory responses. CONCLUSIONS These findings indicate that MAS1-mediated signaling may represent a novel therapeutic target for CCH-related neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Xue
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210006. China
| | - Rui Duan
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210006. China
| | - Qiao-Quan Zhang
- Department of Pathology, Nanjing Brain Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210029. China
| | - Si-Yu Wang
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210006. China
| | - Peng-Yu Gong
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210006. China
| | - Yan E
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210006. China
| | - Ying-Dong Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210006. China
| | - Teng Jiang
- Department of Neurology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 210006. China
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Babusikova E, Dobrota D, Turner AJ, Nalivaeva NN. Effect of Global Brain Ischemia on Amyloid Precursor Protein Metabolism and Expression of Amyloid-Degrading Enzymes in Rat Cortex: Role in Pathogenesis of Alzheimer's Disease. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2021; 86:680-692. [PMID: 34225591 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297921060067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The incidence of Alzheimer's disease (AD) increases significantly following chronic stress and brain ischemia which, over the years, cause accumulation of toxic amyloid species and brain damage. The effects of global 15-min ischemia and 120-min reperfusion on the levels of expression of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and its processing were investigated in the brain cortex (Cx) of male Wistar rats. Additionally, the levels of expression of the amyloid-degrading enzymes neprilysin (NEP), endothelin-converting enzyme-1 (ECE-1), and insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE), as well as of some markers of oxidative damage were assessed. It was shown that the APP mRNA and protein levels in the rat Cx were significantly increased after the ischemic insult. Protein levels of the soluble APP fragments, especially of sAPPβ produced by β-secretase, (BACE-1) and the levels of BACE-1 mRNA and protein expression itself were also increased after ischemia. The protein levels of APP and BACE-1 in the Cx returned to the control values after 120-min reperfusion. The levels of NEP and ECE-1 mRNA also decreased after ischemia, which correlated with the decreased protein levels of these enzymes. However, we have not observed any changes in the protein levels of insulin-degrading enzyme. Contents of the markers of oxidative damage (di-tyrosine and lysine conjugates with lipid peroxidation products) were also increased after ischemia. The obtained data suggest that ischemia shifts APP processing towards the amyloidogenic β-secretase pathway and accumulation of the neurotoxic Aβ peptide as well as triggers oxidative stress in the cells. These results are discussed in the context of the role of stress and ischemia in initiation and progression of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Babusikova
- Comenius University in Bratislava, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Department of Medical Biochemistry, Martin, 036 01, Slovakia.
| | - Dusan Dobrota
- Comenius University in Bratislava, Jessenius Faculty of Medicine in Martin, Department of Medical Biochemistry, Martin, 036 01, Slovakia.
| | - Anthony J Turner
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom.
| | - Natalia N Nalivaeva
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom. .,Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, 194223, Russia
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Rosell-Cardona C, Griñan-Ferré C, Pérez-Bosque A, Polo J, Pallàs M, Amat C, Moretó M, Miró L. Dietary Spray-Dried Porcine Plasma Reduces Neuropathological Alzheimer's Disease Hallmarks in SAMP8 Mice. Nutrients 2021; 13:2369. [PMID: 34371878 PMCID: PMC8308893 DOI: 10.3390/nu13072369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2021] [Revised: 07/04/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by the aberrant processing of amyloid precursor protein (APP) and the accumulation of hyperphosphorylated tau, both of which are accompanied by neuroinflammation. Dietary supplementation with spray-dried porcine plasma (SDP) has anti-inflammatory effects in inflammation models. We investigated whether dietary supplementation with SDP prevents the neuropathological features of AD. The experiments were performed in 2- and 6-month-old SAMP8 mice fed a control diet, or a diet supplemented with 8% SDP, for 4 months. AD brain molecular markers were determined by Western blot and real-time PCR. Senescent mice showed reduced levels of p-GSK3β (Ser9) and an increase in p-CDK5, p-tau (Ser396), sAPPβ, and the concentration of Aβ40, (all p < 0.05). SDP prevented these effects of aging and reduced Bace1 levels (all p < 0.05). Senescence increased the expression of Mme1 and Ide1 and pro-inflammatory cytokines (Il-17 and Il-18; all p < 0.05); these changes were prevented by SDP supplementation. Moreover, SDP increased Tgf-β expression (p < 0.05). Furthermore, in aged mice, the gene expression levels of the microglial activation markers Trem2, Ym1, and Arg1 were increased, and SDP prevented these increases (all p < 0.05). Thus, dietary SDP might delay AD onset by reducing its hallmarks in senescent mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Rosell-Cardona
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Institute for Nutrition and Food Safety, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (C.R.-C.); (A.P.-B.); (C.A.); (M.M.)
| | - Christian Griñan-Ferré
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Institute of Neurosciences, CIBERNED, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (C.G.-F.); (M.P.)
| | - Anna Pérez-Bosque
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Institute for Nutrition and Food Safety, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (C.R.-C.); (A.P.-B.); (C.A.); (M.M.)
| | | | - Mercè Pallàs
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Institute of Neurosciences, CIBERNED, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (C.G.-F.); (M.P.)
| | - Concepció Amat
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Institute for Nutrition and Food Safety, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (C.R.-C.); (A.P.-B.); (C.A.); (M.M.)
| | - Miquel Moretó
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Institute for Nutrition and Food Safety, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (C.R.-C.); (A.P.-B.); (C.A.); (M.M.)
| | - Lluïsa Miró
- Department of Biochemistry and Physiology, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Institute for Nutrition and Food Safety, Universitat de Barcelona (UB), 08028 Barcelona, Spain; (C.R.-C.); (A.P.-B.); (C.A.); (M.M.)
- APC Europe S.L.U., 08403 Granollers, Spain;
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14
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Bandyopadhyay S. Role of Neuron and Glia in Alzheimer's Disease and Associated Vascular Dysfunction. Front Aging Neurosci 2021; 13:653334. [PMID: 34211387 PMCID: PMC8239194 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2021.653334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyloidogenicity and vascular dysfunction are the key players in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD), involving dysregulated cellular interactions. An intricate balance between neurons, astrocytes, microglia, oligodendrocytes and vascular cells sustains the normal neuronal circuits. Conversely, cerebrovascular diseases overlap neuropathologically with AD, and glial dyshomeostasis promotes AD-associated neurodegenerative cascade. While pathological hallmarks of AD primarily include amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles, microvascular disorders, altered cerebral blood flow (CBF), and blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability induce neuronal loss and synaptic atrophy. Accordingly, microglia-mediated inflammation and astrogliosis disrupt the homeostasis of the neuro-vascular unit and stimulate infiltration of circulating leukocytes into the brain. Large-scale genetic and epidemiological studies demonstrate a critical role of cellular crosstalk for altered immune response, metabolism, and vasculature in AD. The glia associated genetic risk factors include APOE, TREM2, CD33, PGRN, CR1, and NLRP3, which correlate with the deposition and altered phagocytosis of Aβ. Moreover, aging-dependent downregulation of astrocyte and microglial Aβ-degrading enzymes limits the neurotrophic and neurogenic role of glial cells and inhibits lysosomal degradation and clearance of Aβ. Microglial cells secrete IGF-1, and neurons show a reduced responsiveness to the neurotrophic IGF-1R/IRS-2/PI3K signaling pathway, generating amyloidogenic and vascular dyshomeostasis in AD. Glial signals connect to neural stem cells, and a shift in glial phenotype over the AD trajectory even affects adult neurogenesis and the neurovascular niche. Overall, the current review informs about the interaction of neuronal and glial cell types in AD pathogenesis and its critical association with cerebrovascular dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanghamitra Bandyopadhyay
- Developmental Toxicology Laboratory, Systems Toxicology & Health Risk Assessment Group, CSIR-Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (CSIR-IITR), Lucknow, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, India
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15
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Ouyang Q, Meng Y, Zhou W, Tong J, Cheng Z, Zhu Q. New advances in brain-targeting nano-drug delivery systems for Alzheimer's disease. J Drug Target 2021; 30:61-81. [PMID: 33983096 DOI: 10.1080/1061186x.2021.1927055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease worldwide and its incidence is increasing due to the ageing population. Currently, the main limitations of AD treatment are low blood-brain barrier permeability, severe off-target of drugs, and immune abnormality. In this review, four hypotheses for Alzheimer's pathogenesis and three challenges for Alzheimer's drug delivery are discussed. In addition, this article summarises the different strategies of brain targeting nano-drug delivery systems (NDDSs) developed in the last 10 years. These strategies include receptor-mediated (transferrin receptor, low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein, lactoferrin receptor, etc.), adsorption-mediated (cationic, alkaline polypeptide, cell-penetrating peptides, etc.), and transporter-mediated (P-gp, GLUT1, etc.). Moreover, it provides insights into novel strategies used in AD, such as exosomes, virus-like particles, and cell membrane coating particles. Hence, this review will help researchers to understand the current progress in the field of NDDSs for the central nervous system and find new directions for AD therapy.HighlightsCharacteristics and challenges based on the pathogenesis of AD were discussed.Recent advances in novel brain-targeting NDDSs for AD over the past 10 years were summarised.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qin Ouyang
- Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Yingcai Meng
- Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Wenhu Zhou
- Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Jianbin Tong
- Department of Anaesthesiology, Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China.,Hunan Province Key Laboratory of Brain Homeostasis, Third Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, P.R. China
| | - Zeneng Cheng
- Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
| | - Qubo Zhu
- Xiangya School of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Central South University, Changsha, Hunan, China
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16
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Ye C, Liang Y, Chen Y, Xiong Y, She Y, Zhong X, Chen H, Huang M. Berberine Improves Cognitive Impairment by Simultaneously Impacting Cerebral Blood Flow and β-Amyloid Accumulation in an APP/tau/PS1 Mouse Model of Alzheimer's Disease. Cells 2021; 10:cells10051161. [PMID: 34064687 PMCID: PMC8150323 DOI: 10.3390/cells10051161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Revised: 05/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is accompanied by β-amyloid (Aβ), neurofibrillary tangles, and neuron cell death, and is one of the most commonly occurring diseases among the elderly. The pathology of AD is complex, involving Aβ overproduction and accumulation, tau hyperphosphorylation, and neuronal loss. In addition, chronic cerebral hypoperfusion (CCH) is ubiquitous in the AD patients and plans a pivotal role in triggering and exacerbating the pathophysiological progress of AD. The goal of this study was to investigate the neuroprotective properties of berberine (BBR) and the underlying mechanism. During the study, BBR was administrated to treat the triple-transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's disease (3×Tg AD). To thoroughly evaluate the effects of the BBR administration, multiple manners were utilized, for instance, 3D arterial spin labeling technique, Morris water maze assay, immunofluorescence staining, TUNEL assay, laser speckle contrast imaging, western blotting, etc. The results showed that BBR ameliorated cognitive deficits in 3×Tg AD mice, reduced the Aβ accumulation, inhibited the apoptosis of neurons, promoted the formation of microvessels in the mouse brain by enhancing brain CD31, VEGF, N-cadherin, Ang-1. The new vessels promoted by BBR were observed to have a complete structure and perfect function, which in turn promoted the recovery of cerebral blood flow (CBF). In general, berberine is effective to 3×Tg AD mice, has a neuroprotective effect, and is a candidate drug for the multi-target prevention and treatment of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenghui Ye
- Department of Neurology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China; (C.Y.); (Y.C.); (Y.X.); (Y.S.); (X.Z.)
| | - Yubin Liang
- Department of Neurology, Zhuhai People’s Hospital (Zhuhai Hospital Affiliated with Jinan University), Zhuhai 519000, China;
| | - Ying Chen
- Department of Neurology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China; (C.Y.); (Y.C.); (Y.X.); (Y.S.); (X.Z.)
| | - Yu Xiong
- Department of Neurology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China; (C.Y.); (Y.C.); (Y.X.); (Y.S.); (X.Z.)
| | - Yingfang She
- Department of Neurology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China; (C.Y.); (Y.C.); (Y.X.); (Y.S.); (X.Z.)
| | - Xiaochun Zhong
- Department of Neurology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China; (C.Y.); (Y.C.); (Y.X.); (Y.S.); (X.Z.)
| | - Hongda Chen
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China
- Correspondence: (H.C.); (M.H.)
| | - Min Huang
- Department of Neurology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China; (C.Y.); (Y.C.); (Y.X.); (Y.S.); (X.Z.)
- Correspondence: (H.C.); (M.H.)
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17
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Detrimental effects of long-term elevated serum uric acid on cognitive function in rats. Sci Rep 2021; 11:6732. [PMID: 33762656 PMCID: PMC7991666 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-86279-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Uric acid is a powerful antioxidant. However, its elevated levels in association with cardiovascular diseases predispose individuals to cognitive impairment. Uric acid's effects on cognition may be related to its concentration and exposure period. We aimed to explore the effects of long-term elevated serum uric acid on cognitive function and hippocampus. Rats were randomly divided into four groups: NC, M1, M2 and M3 groups. Hyperuricemia was established in rats at week 6 and maintained until week 48 in groups M1, M2 and M3. The rats' spatial learning and memory abilities were assessed by the Morris Water Maze test at weeks 0, 6, 16, 32, and 48. After week 48, we observed pathological changes in right hippocampal CA1 and CA3 regions, and measured levels of oxidative stress, inflammatory cytokines, and β-amyloid peptide of left hippocampus. Starting from week 6, the serum uric acid level of M3 group > M2 group, the serum uric acid level of M2 group > M1 group, and the serum uric acid level of M1 group > NC group. The rats in M3 and M2 groups had longer escape latencies, longer mean distances to the platform, more extensive pathological damage, stronger inflammation response, higher oxidative stress and β-amyloid peptide levels than those in NC group. No significant differences were observed between M1 and NC groups. In addition, we also found that oxidative stress significantly correlated with tumour necrosis factor-α and β-amyloid peptide. Long-term elevated serum uric acid was significantly associated with cognitive impairment risk. Oxidative stress, tumour necrosis factor-α and β-amyloid peptide may mediate the pathogenesis of the cognitive impairment induced by uric acid. The detrimental effect of elevated serum uric acid on cognitive function was probably expressed when the serum uric acid concentration reached a certain level.
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18
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Steinman J, Sun HS, Feng ZP. Microvascular Alterations in Alzheimer's Disease. Front Cell Neurosci 2021; 14:618986. [PMID: 33536876 PMCID: PMC7849053 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.618986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder associated with continual decline in cognition and ability to perform routine functions such as remembering familiar places or understanding speech. For decades, amyloid beta (Aβ) was viewed as the driver of AD, triggering neurodegenerative processes such as inflammation and formation of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs). This approach has not yielded therapeutics that cure the disease or significant improvements in long-term cognition through removal of plaques and Aβ oligomers. Some researchers propose alternate mechanisms that drive AD or act in conjunction with amyloid to promote neurodegeneration. This review summarizes the status of AD research and examines research directions including and beyond Aβ, such as tau, inflammation, and protein clearance mechanisms. The effect of aging on microvasculature is highlighted, including its contribution to reduced blood flow that impairs cognition. Microvascular alterations observed in AD are outlined, emphasizing imaging studies of capillary malfunction. The review concludes with a discussion of two therapies to protect tissue without directly targeting Aβ for removal: (1) administration of growth factors to promote vascular recovery in AD; (2) inhibiting activity of a calcium-permeable ion channels to reduce microglial activation and restore cerebral vascular function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joe Steinman
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Hong-Shuo Sun
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Zhong-Ping Feng
- Department of Physiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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19
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Parodi-Rullán R, Sone JY, Fossati S. Endothelial Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Cerebral Amyloid Angiopathy and Alzheimer's Disease. J Alzheimers Dis 2020; 72:1019-1039. [PMID: 31306129 DOI: 10.3233/jad-190357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent form of dementia. Cerebrovascular dysfunction is one of the earliest events in the pathogenesis of AD, as well as in vascular and mixed dementias. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA), the deposition of amyloid around cerebral vessels, is observed in up to 90% of AD patients and in approximately 50% of elderly individuals over 80 years of age. CAA is a strong contributor to vascular dysfunction in AD. CAA-laden brain vessels are characterized by dysfunctional hemodynamics and leaky blood-brain barrier (BBB), contributing to clearance failure and further accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) in the cerebrovasculature and brain parenchyma. Mitochondrial dysfunction is increasingly recognized as an important early initiator of the pathogenesis of AD and CAA. The objective of this review is to discuss the effects of Aβ on cerebral microvascular cell function, focusing on its impact on endothelial mitochondria. After introducing CAA and its etiology and genetic risk factors, we describe the pathological relationship between cerebrovascular amyloidosis and brain microvascular endothelial cell dysfunction, critically analyzing its roles in disease progression, hypoperfusion, and BBB integrity. Then, we focus on discussing the effect of Aβ challenge on endothelial mitochondrial dysfunction pathways, and their contribution to the progression of neurovascular dysfunction in AD and dementia. Finally, we report potential pharmacological and non-pharmacological mitochondria-targeted therapeutic strategies which may help prevent or delay cerebrovascular failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Parodi-Rullán
- Alzheimer's Center at Temple, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Je Yeong Sone
- Department of Psychiatry, Center for Brain Health, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY, USA
| | - Silvia Fossati
- Alzheimer's Center at Temple, Lewis Katz School of Medicine, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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20
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW This review summarizes the evidence for the established vascular/hypoperfusion model and explores the new hypothesis that configures the heart/brain axis as an organ system where similar pathogenic mechanisms exploit physiological and pathological changes. RECENT FINDINGS Although associated by common risk factors, similar epidemiological stratification and common triggers (including inflammation, oxidative stress, and hypoxia), heart failure and Alzheimer's disease have been, for long time, viewed as pathogenically separate illnesses. The silos began to be broken down with the awareness that vascular dysfunction, and loss of cardiac perfusion pump power, trigger biochemical changes, contributing to the typical hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD)-the accumulation of Aβ plaques and hyperphosphorylated Tau tangles. Compromised blood flow to the brain becomes the paradigm for the "heart-to-head" connection. Compelling evidence of common genetic variants, biochemical characteristics, and the accumulation of Aβ outside the brain suggests a common pathogenesis for heart failure (HF) and AD. These new findings represent just the beginning of the understanding the complex connection between AD and HF requiring further studies and interdisciplinary approaches. Altogether, the current evidence briefly summarized in this review, highlight a closer and complex relationship between heart failure and Alzheimer's that goes beyond the vascular/perfusion hypothesis. Genetic and biochemical evidence begin to suggest common pathogenic mechanisms between the two diseases involving a systemic defect in the folding of protein or a seeding at distance of the misfolded proteins from one organ to the other.
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21
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Choi BR, Seo JH, Back DB, Han JS, Choi DH, Kwon KJ, Shin CY, Lee J, Kim HY. Effect of amyloid toxicity or chronic cerebral hypoperfusion on brain insulin resistance in a rat model with intracerebroventricular streptozotocin. Brain Res Bull 2020; 158:40-50. [PMID: 32114000 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2020.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a multifactorial neurodegenerative disorder affected by amyloid and vascular pathogenesis. Brain insulin resistance (BIR) has been suggested as one of the pathomechanisms of sporadic AD. We investigated how the amyloid and vascular pathogenesis of AD interacts with BIR. We examined experimental groups mimicking amyloid pathogenesis following intracerebroventriculr (icv) injection of amyloid β or vascular pathogenesis following permanent ligation of the bilateral common carotid arteries in Wistar rats that had undergone icv injection of streptozotocin. Behavioral tests and pathologic studies were performed. Cognitive impairments were induced by BIR superimposed by amyloid or vascular pathogenesis. Neuroinflammation in the white matter and hippocampus was aggravated by an interaction between BIR and vascular pathogenesis. Amyloid-associated pathology in the white matter was enhanced by BIR and vascular pathogenesis. Tau-associated pathology in the hippocampus was altered by BIR in a relation with amyloid or vascular pathogenesis. Our study may provide useful experimental insights based on an integrated approach to the influence of amyloid and vascular pathogenesis on BIR, permitting better understanding of the heterogeneous pathogenesis of sporadic AD. Pathologic responses in sporadic AD may differ depending on amyloid and vascular pathogenesis and may sometimes be synergistically aggravated when combined with BIR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo-Ryoung Choi
- Department of Neurology, Center for Geriatric Neuroscience Research, Institute of Biomedical Science and Technology, Research Institute of Medical Science, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Department of Biological Sciences, Center for Geriatric Neuroscience Research, Institute of Biomedical Science and Technology, Research Institute of Medical Science, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Ju-Ha Seo
- Department of Neurology, Center for Geriatric Neuroscience Research, Institute of Biomedical Science and Technology, Research Institute of Medical Science, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Bin Back
- Department of Neurology, Center for Geriatric Neuroscience Research, Institute of Biomedical Science and Technology, Research Institute of Medical Science, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung-Soo Han
- Department of Biological Sciences, Center for Geriatric Neuroscience Research, Institute of Biomedical Science and Technology, Research Institute of Medical Science, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Hee Choi
- Department of Medicine, Center for Geriatric Neuroscience Research, Institute of Biomedical Science and Technology, Research Institute of Medical Science, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Kyoung Ja Kwon
- Department of Neurology, Center for Geriatric Neuroscience Research, Institute of Biomedical Science and Technology, Research Institute of Medical Science, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Department of Medicine, Center for Geriatric Neuroscience Research, Institute of Biomedical Science and Technology, Research Institute of Medical Science, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Chan Young Shin
- Department of Pharmacology, Center for Geriatric Neuroscience Research, Institute of Biomedical Science and Technology, Research Institute of Medical Science, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jongmin Lee
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Center for Geriatric Neuroscience Research, Institute of Biomedical Science and Technology, Research Institute of Medical Science, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hahn Young Kim
- Department of Neurology, Center for Geriatric Neuroscience Research, Institute of Biomedical Science and Technology, Research Institute of Medical Science, Konkuk University School of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
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22
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Darlington A, McCauley MD. Atrial Cardiomyopathy: An Unexplored Limb of Virchow's Triad for AF Stroke Prophylaxis. Front Cardiovasc Med 2020; 7:11. [PMID: 32133372 PMCID: PMC7039862 DOI: 10.3389/fcvm.2020.00011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The most dreaded complication of atrial fibrillation is stroke, and 70–80% of patients with AF-related stroke die or become disabled. The mechanisms of thromboembolism in AF are multifactorial, with evidence demonstrating that all three criteria of Virchow's triad are satisfied in AF: abnormal stasis of blood, endothelial damage, and hypercoagulability. Mechanistic insights into the latter two limbs have resulted in effective stroke prophylactic therapies (left atrial appendage occlusion and oral anticoagulants); however, despite these advances, there remains an excess of stroke in the AF population that may be due, in part, to a lack of mechanistic understanding of atrial hypocontractility resulting in abnormal stasis of blood within the atrium. These observations support the emerging concept of atrial cardiomyopathy as a cause of stroke. In this Review, we evaluate molecular, translational, and clinical evidence for atrial cardiomyopathy as a cause for stroke from AF, and present a rationale for further investigation of this largely unaddressed limb of Virchow's triad in AF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley Darlington
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States.,Jesse Brown VA Medical Center, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Mark D McCauley
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States.,Jesse Brown VA Medical Center, Chicago, IL, United States.,Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, United States
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23
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Solis E, Hascup KN, Hascup ER. Alzheimer's Disease: The Link Between Amyloid-β and Neurovascular Dysfunction. J Alzheimers Dis 2020; 76:1179-1198. [PMID: 32597813 PMCID: PMC7483596 DOI: 10.3233/jad-200473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
While prevailing evidence supports that the amyloid cascade hypothesis is a key component of Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathology, many recent studies indicate that the vascular system is also a major contributor to disease progression. Vascular dysfunction and reduced cerebral blood flow (CBF) occur prior to the accumulation and aggregation of amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques and hyperphosphorylated tau tangles. Although research has predominantly focused on the cellular processes involved with Aβ-mediated neurodegeneration, effects of Aβ on CBF and neurovascular coupling are becoming more evident. This review will describe AD vascular disturbances as they relate to Aβ, including chronic cerebral hypoperfusion, hypertension, altered neurovascular coupling, and deterioration of the blood-brain barrier. In addition, we will describe recent findings about the relationship between these vascular defects and Aβ accumulation with emphasis on in vivo studies utilizing rodent AD models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ernesto Solis
- Department of Neurology, Neuroscience Institute, Center for Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Disorders, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield, IL, USA
| | - Kevin N. Hascup
- Department of Neurology, Neuroscience Institute, Center for Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Disorders, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield, IL, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield, IL, USA
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Immunology, and Cell Biology, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield, IL, USA
| | - Erin R. Hascup
- Department of Neurology, Neuroscience Institute, Center for Alzheimer’s Disease and Related Disorders, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield, IL, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, Southern Illinois University School of Medicine, Springfield, IL, USA
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24
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Liu X, Feng Z, Du L, Huang Y, Ge J, Deng Y, Mei Z. The Potential Role of MicroRNA-124 in Cerebral Ischemia Injury. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 21:ijms21010120. [PMID: 31878035 PMCID: PMC6981583 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21010120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Revised: 12/19/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Cerebral ischemia injury, the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, initiates sequential molecular and cellular pathologies that underlie ischemic encephalopathy (IE), such as ischemic stroke, Alzheimer disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), epilepsy, etc. Targeted therapeutic treatments are urgently needed to tackle the pathological processes implicated in these neurological diseases. Recently, accumulating studies demonstrate that microRNA-124 (miR-124), the most abundant miRNA in brain tissue, is aberrant in peripheral blood and brain vascular endothelial cells following cerebral ischemia. Importantly, miR-124 regulates a variety of pathophysiological processes that are involved in the pathogenesis of age-related IE. However, the role of miR-124 has not been systematically illustrated. Paradoxically, miR-124 exerts beneficial effects in the age-related IE via regulating autophagy, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress, neuronal excitability, neurodifferentiation, Aβ deposition, and hyperphosphorylation of tau protein, while it may play a dual role via regulating apoptosis and exerts detrimental effects on synaptic plasticity and axonal growth. In the present review, we thus focus on the paradoxical roles of miR-124 in age-related IE, as well as the underlying mechanisms. A great understanding of the effects of miR-124 on the hypoxic-ischemic brain will open new avenues for therapeutic approaches to protect against cerebral ischemia injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolu Liu
- Third-Grade Pharmacological Laboratory on Chinese Medicine Approved by State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Medical College of China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China; (X.L.); (Z.F.); (L.D.); (Y.H.)
| | - Zhitao Feng
- Third-Grade Pharmacological Laboratory on Chinese Medicine Approved by State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Medical College of China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China; (X.L.); (Z.F.); (L.D.); (Y.H.)
| | - Lipeng Du
- Third-Grade Pharmacological Laboratory on Chinese Medicine Approved by State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Medical College of China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China; (X.L.); (Z.F.); (L.D.); (Y.H.)
| | - Yaguang Huang
- Third-Grade Pharmacological Laboratory on Chinese Medicine Approved by State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Medical College of China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China; (X.L.); (Z.F.); (L.D.); (Y.H.)
| | - Jinwen Ge
- The Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine on Prevention and Treatment of Cardio-Cerebral Diseases, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, China (Y.D.)
| | - Yihui Deng
- The Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine on Prevention and Treatment of Cardio-Cerebral Diseases, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, China (Y.D.)
| | - Zhigang Mei
- Third-Grade Pharmacological Laboratory on Chinese Medicine Approved by State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Medical College of China Three Gorges University, Yichang 443002, China; (X.L.); (Z.F.); (L.D.); (Y.H.)
- The Key Laboratory of Hunan Province for Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine on Prevention and Treatment of Cardio-Cerebral Diseases, Hunan University of Chinese Medicine, Changsha 410208, China (Y.D.)
- Correspondence:
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25
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Borshchev YY, Uspensky YP, Galagudza MM. Pathogenetic pathways of cognitive dysfunction and dementia in metabolic syndrome. Life Sci 2019; 237:116932. [PMID: 31606384 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2019.116932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2019] [Revised: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 10/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The prevalence of dementia worldwide is growing at an alarming rate. A number of studies and meta-analyses have provided evidence for increased risk of dementia in patients with metabolic syndrome (MS) as compared to persons without MS. However, there are some reports demonstrating a lack of association between MS and increased dementia risk. In this review, taking into account the potential role of individual MS components in the pathogenesis of MS-related cognitive dysfunction, we considered the underlying mechanisms in arterial hypertension, diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia, and obesity. The pathogenesis of dementia in MS is multifactorial, involving both vascular injury and non-ischemic neuronal death due to neurodegeneration. Neurodegenerative and ischemic lesions do not simply coexist in the brain due to independent evolution, but rather exacerbate each other, leading to more severe consequences for cognition than would either pathology alone. In addition to universal mechanisms of cognitive dysfunction shared by all MS components, other pathogenetic pathways leading to cognitive deficits and dementia, which are specific for each component, also play a role. Examples of such component-specific pathogenetic pathways include central insulin resistance and hypoglycemia in diabetes, neuroinflammation and adipokine imbalance in obesity, as well as arteriolosclerosis and lipohyalinosis in arterial hypertension. A more detailed understanding of cognitive disorders based on the recognition of underlying molecular mechanisms will aid in the development of new methods for prevention and treatment of devastating cognitive problems in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yury Yu Borshchev
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Almazov National Medical Research Center, Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation
| | - Yury P Uspensky
- Department of Faculty Therapy, Saint Petersburg State Pediatric Medical University, Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation
| | - Michael M Galagudza
- Laboratory of Digital and Display Holography, ITMO University, Russian Federation, Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation.
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Liu B, Gao JM, Li F, Gong QH, Shi JS. Gastrodin Attenuates Bilateral Common Carotid Artery Occlusion-Induced Cognitive Deficits via Regulating Aβ-Related Proteins and Reducing Autophagy and Apoptosis in Rats. Front Pharmacol 2018; 9:405. [PMID: 29755351 PMCID: PMC5932202 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2018.00405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2018] [Accepted: 04/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Gastrodin (GAS), an active constituent extracted from Gastrodia elata Blume, is used to treat ischemic stroke, epilepsy, dizziness, and dementia for centuries in China. This study examined its effects on vascular dementia (VD) and the underlying molecular mechanisms. VD was established by ligation of bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (BCCAO). A total of 7 days after BCCAO surgery, GAS (15, 30, and 60 mg/kg) was orally administered for 28 consecutive days to evaluate therapeutic effects. Cognitive function was tested by the Morris water maze. The neuronal morphological changes were examined via Hematoxylin-Eosin staining. Flow cytometry was used for evaluating apoptosis in the hippocampi. The target protein expression was examined by Western blot. The results showed that BCCAO induced cognitive impairment, hippocampus CA1 and CA3 pyramidal neuron damage, beta-amyloid (Aβ) deposition, excessive autophagy, and apoptosis. GAS treatment significantly improved BCCAO-induced cognitive deficits and hippocampus neuron damage. Molecular analysis revealed that GAS exerted the protective effect via reducing the levels of Aβ1-40/42, APP, and β-site APP-cleaving enzyme 1 expression, and increasing Aβ-related protein, a disintegrin and metalloprotease 10, and insulin degrading enzyme expression. Meanwhile, GAS inhibited excessive autophagy via decreasing Beclin-1, LC3-II, and p62 levels. Furthermore, GAS inhibited apoptosis through the downregulation of Bax and upregulation of Bcl-2. Moreover, P38 MAPK signaling pathway was involved in the process. Our findings demonstrate that GAS was effective in the treatment of BCCAO-induced VD via targeting Aβ-related protein formation and inhibiting autophagy and apoptosis of hippocampus neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Shanghai, China.,Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Jian-Mei Gao
- Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Fei Li
- Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Qi-Hai Gong
- Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Jing-Shan Shi
- Key Laboratory of Basic Pharmacology of Ministry of Education and Joint International Research Laboratory of Ethnomedicine of Ministry of Education, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
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27
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Zhang S, Zhi Y, Li F, Huang S, Gao H, Han Z, Ge X, Li D, Chen F, Kong X, Lei P. Transplantation of in vitro cultured endothelial progenitor cells repairs the blood-brain barrier and improves cognitive function of APP/PS1 transgenic AD mice. J Neurol Sci 2018; 387:6-15. [PMID: 29571873 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2018.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2017] [Revised: 12/30/2017] [Accepted: 01/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
To date, the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) remains unclear. It is well-known that excessive deposition of Aβ in the brain is a crucial part of the pathogenesis of AD. In recent years, the AD neurovascular unit hypothesis has attracted much attention. Impairment of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) leads to abnormal amyloid-β (Aβ) transport, and chronic cerebral hypoperfusion causes Aβ deposition throughout the onset and progression of AD. Endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) are the universal cells for repairing blood vessels. Our previous studies have shown that a reduced number of EPCs in the peripheral blood results in cerebral vascular repair disorder, cerebral hypoperfusion and neurodegeneration, which might be related to the cognitive dysfunction of AD patients. This study was designed to confirm whether EPCs transplantation could repair the blood-brain barrier, stimulate angiogenesis and reduce Aβ deposition in AD. The expression of ZO-1, Occludin and Claudin-5 was up-regulated in APP/PS1 transgenic mice after hippocampal transplantation of EPCs. Consistent with previous studies, EPC transplants also increased the microvessel density. We observed that Aβ senile plaque deposition was decreased and hippocampal cell apoptosis was reduced after EPCs transplantation. The Morris water maze test showed that spatial learning and memory functions were significantly improved in mice transplanted with EPCs. Consequently, EPCs could up-regulate the expression of tight junction proteins, repair BBB tight junction function, stimulate angiogenesis, promote Aβ clearance, and decrease neuronal loss, ultimately improve cognitive function. Taken together, these data demonstrate EPCs may play an important role in the therapeutic implications for vascular dysfunction in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shishuang Zhang
- Department of Geriatrics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, China; Tianjin Geriatrics Institute, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Yongle Zhi
- Tianjin Third Central Hospital, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Fei Li
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, China; Key Laboratory of Post-trauma Neuro-repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Ministry of Education, Tianjin 300052, China; Key Laboratory of Injuries, Variations and Regeneration of Nervous System, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Tianjin 300052, China; Laboratory of Neuro-Trauma, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Shan Huang
- Department of Geriatrics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, China; Tianjin Geriatrics Institute, Tianjin 300052, China; Key Laboratory of Post-trauma Neuro-repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Ministry of Education, Tianjin 300052, China; Key Laboratory of Injuries, Variations and Regeneration of Nervous System, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Tianjin 300052, China; Laboratory of Neuro-Trauma, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Huabin Gao
- Department of Geriatrics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, China; Tianjin Geriatrics Institute, Tianjin 300052, China; Key Laboratory of Post-trauma Neuro-repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Ministry of Education, Tianjin 300052, China; Key Laboratory of Injuries, Variations and Regeneration of Nervous System, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Tianjin 300052, China; Laboratory of Neuro-Trauma, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Zhaoli Han
- Department of Geriatrics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, China; Tianjin Geriatrics Institute, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Xintong Ge
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, China; Key Laboratory of Post-trauma Neuro-repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Ministry of Education, Tianjin 300052, China; Key Laboratory of Injuries, Variations and Regeneration of Nervous System, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Tianjin 300052, China; Laboratory of Neuro-Trauma, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Dai Li
- Department of Geriatrics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, China; Tianjin Geriatrics Institute, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Fanglian Chen
- Key Laboratory of Post-trauma Neuro-repair and Regeneration in Central Nervous System, Ministry of Education, Tianjin 300052, China; Key Laboratory of Injuries, Variations and Regeneration of Nervous System, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Tianjin 300052, China; Laboratory of Neuro-Trauma, Tianjin Neurological Institute, Tianjin 300052, China
| | - Xiaodong Kong
- Department of Geriatrics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, China; Tianjin Geriatrics Institute, Tianjin 300052, China.
| | - Ping Lei
- Department of Geriatrics, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin 300052, China; Tianjin Geriatrics Institute, Tianjin 300052, China.
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