Calcium-induced exocytosis from actomyosin-driven, motile varicosities formed by dynamic clusters of organelles

Synaptic functions of invertebrate varicosities: what molecular mechanisms lie beneath

In mammalian brain, the cellular and molecular events occurring in both synapse formation and plasticity are difficult to study due to the large number of factors involved in these processes and because the contribution of each component is not well defined. Invertebrates, such as Drosophila, Aplysia, Helix, Lymnaea, and Helisoma, have proven to be useful models for studying synaptic assembly and elementary forms of learning. Simple nervous system, cellular accessibility, and genetic simplicity are some examples of the invertebrate advantages that allowed to improve our knowledge about evolutionary neuronal conserved mechanisms. In this paper, we present an overview of progresses that elucidates cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying synaptogenesis and synapse plasticity in invertebrate varicosities and their validation in vertebrates. In particular, the role of invertebrate synapsin in the formation of presynaptic terminals and the cell-to-cell interactions that induce specific structural and functional changes in their respective targets will be analyzed.

Autaptic muscarinic self-excitation and nitrergic self-inhibition in neurons initiating Aplysia feeding are revealed when the neurons are cultured in isolation

Properties of a neuron may arise via endogenous mechanisms, or via interactions with other neurons. Culturing a neuron in isolation is a useful tool to distinguish between endogenous and circuit-derived properties. We identified two remarkable functional features of pattern initiator neurons B31/B32 in Aplysia when these neurons were cultured in isolation. These features were also present in situ, but were less prominent, and would have been missed had they not been observed first in the isolated cultured neurons. The properties are likely to be present in neurons of higher animals, but have not yet been observed. One feature was autaptic muscarinic self-excitation that contributes to the neuron's plateau potential, by which it initiates behavior. The other feature was the release of nitric oxide (NO) in the absence of spiking, which causes self-inhibition at rest. The nitrergic modulation of B31/B32 is likely to contribute to the control of feeding by dietary changes in the concentration of L: -arginine, the precursor from which NO is synthesized.

Membrane trafficking events underlying axon repair, growth, and regeneration

Two central challenges for the field of neurobiology are to understand how axons grow and make proper synaptic connections under normal conditions and how they repair their membranes and mount regenerative responses after injury. At the most reductionist level, the first step toward addressing these challenges is to delineate the cellular and molecular processes by which an axon extends from its cell body. Underlying axon extension are questions of appropriate timing and mechanisms that establish or maintain the axon's polarity, initiate growth cone formation, and promote axon outgrowth and synapse formation. After injury, the problem is even more complicated because the neuron must also repair its damaged membrane, redistribute or manufacture what it needs in order to survive, and grow and form new synapses within a more mature, complex environment. While other reviews have focused extensively on the signaling events and cytoskeletal rearrangements that support axon outgrowth and regeneration, we focus this review instead on the underlying membrane trafficking events underlying these processes. Though the mechanisms are still under active investigation, the key roles played by membrane trafficking events during axon repair, growth, and regeneration have been elucidated through elegant comparative studies in both invertebrate and vertebrate organisms. Taken together, a model emerges indicating that the critical requirements for ensuring proper membrane sealing and axon extension include iterative bouts of SNARE mediated exocytosis, endocytosis, and functional links between vesicles and the actin cytoskeleton, similar to the mechanisms utilized during synaptic transmission. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'Neuronal Function'.

Hallmark cellular pathology of Alzheimer's disease induced by mutant human tau expression in cultured Aplysia neurons

The mechanisms underlying neurodegenerative diseases are the outcome of pathological alterations of evolutionary conserved molecular and cellular cascades. For this reason, Drosophila and C. elegans serve as useful model systems to study various aspects of neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we introduce the advantageous use of cultured Aplysia neurons (which express over 100 disease-related gene homologs shared with mammals), as a platform to study cell biological processes underlying the generation of tauopathy. Using live confocal imaging to follow cytoskeletal elements, autophagosomes, lysosomes, anterogradely and retrogradely transported organelles, complemented with electron microscopy, we demonstrate that the expression of mutant human tau in cultured Aplysia neurons leads to the development of hallmark Alzheimer disease (AD) pathologies. These include a reduction in the number of microtubules and their redistribution, impaired organelle transport, a dramatic accumulation of macro-autophagosomes and lysosomes, compromised neurite morphology and degeneration. Our study demonstrates the accessibility of the platform for long-term live imaging and quantification of subcellular pathological cascades leading to tauopathy. Based on the present study, it is conceivable that this system can also be used to screen for reagents that alter the pathological cascades.

Clustering of excess growth resources within leading growth cones underlies the recurrent "deposition" of varicosities along developing neurites

Varicosities (VRs) are ubiquitous neuronal structures that are considered to serve as presynaptic structures. The mechanisms of their assembly are unknown. Using cultured Aplysia neurons, we found that in the absence of postsynaptic targets, VRs form at the leading edge of extending neurites when anterogradely transported organelles accumulate within the palm of the growth cone (GC) at a rate that exceeds their utilization by the GC machinery. The aggregation of excess organelles at the palm of the GC leads to slowdown of the GC's advance. As the size of the organelle clusters increases, the rate of organelle sequestration diminishes and the supply of building blocks to the GC resumes. The GCs' advance is re-initiated, "leaving behind" an organelle-loaded nascent VR. These mechanisms account for the recurrent "deposition" of almost equally spaced VRs by advancing GCs. Consistent with the view that VRs serve as "ready-to-go" presynaptic terminals, we found that a short train of action potentials leads to exocytosis of labeled vesicles within the varicosities. We propose that the formation and spacing of VRs by advancing GCs is the default outcome of the balance between the rate of supply of growth-supporting resources and the usage of these resources by the GC's machinery at the leading edges of specific neurites.

Imaging and analysis of evoked excitatory-postsynaptic-calcium-transients by individual presynaptic-boutons of cultured Aplysia sensorimotor synapse

The use of the sensory-motor (SN-MN) synapse of the Aplysia gill withdrawal reflex has contributed immensely to the understanding of synaptic transmission, learning and memory acquisition processes. Whereas the majority of the studies focused on analysis of the presynaptic mechanisms, recent studies indicated that as in mammalian synapses, long term potentiation (LTP) formed by Aplysia SN-MN synapse depends on elevation of the postsynaptic free intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca2+](i)). Consistently, injection of the fast calcium chelator BAPTA to the MN prevents the formation of serotonin-induced LTP. Nevertheless, currently there are no published reports that directly examine and document whether evoked synaptic transmission is associated with transient increase in the postsynaptic [Ca2+](i). In the present study we imaged, for the first time, alterations in the postsynaptic [Ca2+](i) in response to presynaptic stimulation and analyzed the underlying mechanisms. Using live imaging of the postsynaptic [Ca2+](i) while monitoring the EPSP, we found that evoked transmitter release generates excitatory postsynaptic calcium concentration transients (EPSCaTs) by two mechanisms: (a) activation of DNQX-sensitive postsynaptic receptors-gated calcium influx and (b) calcium influx through nitrendipine-sensitive voltage-gated calcium channels (VGCCs). Concomitant confocal imaging of presynaptic boutons and EPSCaTs revealed that approximately 86% of the presynaptic boutons are associated with functional synapses.