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Chen N, Nakamura K, Watanabe K. An automatic red-female association tested by the Stroop task. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2023; 238:103982. [PMID: 37478774 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.103982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Colors have been reported to be associated with genders (e.g., reddish color-females). Here, we investigated color-gender associations (red-female/green-male) among Japanese participants using two Stroop-word categorization tasks. Ten Japanese gendered words were chosen as visual stimuli. In Experiment 1 (N = 23), participants were instructed to indicate whether a target word presented in either red, green, or gray font color was a masculine or feminine word. Results showed a congruency effect of red-female association that red font color facilitated the categorization of feminine words and inhibited the categorization of masculine words compared to other colors. No significant effect of green-male association was observed. Experiment 2 (N = 23 newly recruited participants) examined whether the congruency effect of color-gender associations could bias perceptual font color categorization. Participants were asked to discriminate whether the font color, with low saturation, was red or green while ignoring the word's meaning. Results showed that participants responded faster and made fewer errors when categorizing red font colors for feminine words than masculine words. Additionally, a congruent effect of green-male association on performance accuracy was observed, although it did not affect response times. These results indicate the existence of an automatically activated red-female association, which can influence both conceptual gender categorization and perceptual color processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Chen
- The Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel.
| | - Koyo Nakamura
- Faculty of Psychology, Department of Cognition, Emotion, Methods in Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna 1010, Austria; Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo 102-0083, Japan; Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo 169-8555, Japan
| | - Katsumi Watanabe
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo 169-8555, Japan
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2
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Chen N, Nakamura K, Watanabe K. Red background color biases gender categorization of human faces. Sci Rep 2023; 13:7792. [PMID: 37179368 PMCID: PMC10182973 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-34644-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Color carries gender information (e.g., red-female). This study explored whether background color could influence the gender categorization of human faces. Visual stimuli were generated from faces whose sexually dimorphic content was morphed monotonically from female to male perception. The face stimulus was presented upright (Experiment 1) and inverted (Experiment 2) with three background colors (i.e., red, green, and gray). Participants were instructed to categorize the gender of the face stimulus as male or female by pressing one of two labelled keys. Results showed that a red background could bias the gender of an ambiguous upright face toward a female compared with green and gray background colors (Experiment 1). However, this red effect was diminished when the face stimulus was inverted (Experiment 2). These results suggest that red background color interacting with facial configuration features biases gender perception toward a female face, possibly through top-down processing of learned associations between the color red and femininity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Chen
- The Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, 5290002, Ramat Gan, Israel.
| | - Koyo Nakamura
- Faculty of Psychology, Department of Cognition, Emotion, Methods in Psychology, University of Vienna, 1010, Vienna, Austria
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, 102-0083, Japan
| | - Katsumi Watanabe
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo, 169-8555, Japan
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3
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Brown CS, Biefeld S. The Development of Perpetration and Tolerance of Sexual Harassment. CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2023. [DOI: 10.1177/09637214221141855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
The sexual harassment of girls and women is a common occurrence that begins in early adolescence and continues into adulthood. Not only is experiencing sexual harassment common, but it is also widely accepted and tolerated. In the current article, we use the bioecological theory of sexual harassment of girls to explain why this may be. Specifically, we discuss that the perpetration and tolerance of sexual harassment is built on a foundation of gendered socialization, media consumption, peer interactions, and permissive school environments that encourages passivity and objectification in girls and aggressiveness and dominance in boys. We outline how this process begins in infancy and continues throughout development, ultimately fostering an environment in which the sexual harassment of girls and women flourishes. Important implications for preventing sexual harassment are also discussed.
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4
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Dinella LM, Levinson JA, Srouji MA. Can Princesses Be Powerful? A Quasi-Experimental Study Examining Children's Perceptions of Princesses and the Self. J Genet Psychol 2023; 184:70-91. [PMID: 36137945 DOI: 10.1080/00221325.2022.2124904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Children's gender schematic cognitions guide their attention, affinities, and behaviors, often narrowing their opportunities. The goal of the present study is to examine how children's exposure to animated Disney princesses modeling agentic behaviors (such as being a leader) alters children's gender schematic perceptions of princesses' characteristics, and if this exposure impacts children's perceptions of their own gender-typed qualities. Interviews with 60 children from the northeast region of the United States (Mage = 4.5 years old) at the beginning and end of six weeks indicate that, as hypothesized, children's perceptions of princesses and themselves became less gender schematic after cumulative exposure to animated videos depicting princesses modeling agentic behaviors. Children's perceptions of princesses' agency and their own agency increased throughout the study, asserting that with exposure to nontraditional gender-typed characters, children begin to see themselves as less gender-typed. These findings provide new insights into the role of early children's media exposure in shaping children's gender cognitions.
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5
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Liberman-Pincu E, Parmet Y, Oron-Gilad T. Judging a Socially Assistive Robot (SAR) by its Cover; The Effect of Body Structure, Outline, and Color on Users' Perception. ACM TRANSACTIONS ON HUMAN-ROBOT INTERACTION 2022. [DOI: 10.1145/3571717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Socially assistive robots (SARs) aim to provide assistance through social interaction. Previous studies contributed to understanding users` perceptions and preferences regarding existing commercially available SARs. Yet, very few studies regarding SARs' appearance used designated SAR designs, and even fewer evaluated isolated visual qualities (VQ). In this work, we aim to assess the effect of isolated VQs systematically. To achieve this, we first conducted market survey and deconstructed the VQs attributed to SARs. Then, a reconstruction of body structure, outline, and color scheme was done, resulting in the creation of 30 new SAR models that differ in their VQs, allowing us to isolate one character at a time. We used these new designs to evaluate users' preferences and perceptions in two empirical studies. Our empirical findings link VQs with perceptions of SAR characteristics. These can lead to forming guidelines for the industrial design processes of new SARs to match user expectations.
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6
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Children’s Physical Gender Schemas: Acquisition and Features. SEX ROLES 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-022-01325-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
AbstractStudies on how physical gender schemas develop in children have traditionally utilized forced-choice and close-ended tasks, finding that the ability to make gender-related distinctions develops in the first years of a child’s life. To reduce demand characteristics that reinforce gender binaries in children’s models of gender, we relied on open-ended discourse analysis to study children’s physical gender schemas. We focused on whether children’s ability to ask questions that distinguish gender groups was greater in older than younger children. Participants were 44 3–4-year-olds, 35 5–6-year-olds, and 23 7–8-year-old children in the U.K. who were led through a guessing game to elicit gender-related beliefs and compare their beliefs about gender to their beliefs about other entities such as living things. When asking questions to distinguish gender binary groups, older children judging gendered individuals were more likely to ask questions that stereotypically distinguished the gender groups than younger children. Older children were also more likely to focus on individuals’ biological properties, clothing, and hair length than were younger children. Thus, the development of a child’s understanding of physical gender schemas gender is discrete, developing gradually at least until the age of 8.
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7
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Muir R. ‘Into the Unknown’: Using facet methodology to explore the Disney Princess Phenomenon. METHODOLOGICAL INNOVATIONS 2022. [DOI: 10.1177/20597991221090453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The Disney Princesses are 18 royal characters featured in Disney and Pixar animated films, merchandise, marketing, and consumer experiences, marketed towards young consumers. Whilst much research has focussed on the representation of gender in Disney Princess films, there has been little focus on the rest of princess culture. This article argues that to understand the Disney Princess Phenomenon in its entirety, a new methodology must be introduced to the field. The article introduces Mason’s facet methodology as a methodological innovation to the fields of Disney and feminist media studies. A creative and innovative approach that allows researchers to ‘play’ with different methods to explore cultural phenomenon. Facet methodology imagines the selected phenomenon as a gemstone, where each ‘element’ or ‘part’ of the phenomenon is a facet of the overall gem. By using different methods to explore each facet, researchers can use findings to refract and reflect ‘light’ on each of the different elements of the phenomenon, demonstrating its entwined nature. The paper firstly outlines Jennifer Mason’s facet methodology. Secondly, it introduces the facets identified in the Disney Princess Phenomenon: films, merchandising and marketing, and consumer experiences. The article then focuses on how facet methodology enabled a creative and holistic approach to studying each facet of the princess phenomenon through a variety of research methods: textual analysis, interviews, content analysis, and autoethnography. The paper then reflects on the approach of facet methodology for research on the Disney Princess Phenomenon and in feminist media studies and media and communication, arguing that facet methodology provides researchers with insights to phenomena we would otherwise not uncover due to its holistic approach.
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Goings F, Wilson NL, Equiza A, Lefsrud LM, Willis LM. Margaret-Ann Armour and WISEST – an incredible legacy in advancing women in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) and the work still to do. CAN J CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1139/cjc-2020-0328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Dr. Margaret-Ann Armour was a visionary and leader in addressing the issue of gender inclusivity and discrimination in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). She was instrumental in creating WISEST — Women in Scholarship, Engineering, Science, and Technology — in 1982, which was one of the first programs in Canada intentionally designed to increase the participation of women and girls in STEM career paths. Since then, this innovative organization has designed several programs featuring hands-on learning and mentoring that reduce barriers and empower people from underrepresented and marginalized groups to pursue education and careers in STEM fields. This review provides a template for WISEST programs, discusses their impact on diversity in STEM, and highlights the work still to be done.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nicole L. Wilson
- Office of the Dean, Faculty of Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB
| | - Ale Equiza
- Office of Advancement, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB
| | - Lianne M. Lefsrud
- Lynch School of Engineering Safety and Risk Management, Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB
| | - Lisa M. Willis
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB
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9
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Davis JTM, Robertson E, Lew‐Levy S, Neldner K, Kapitany R, Nielsen M, Hines M. Cultural Components of Sex Differences in Color Preference. Child Dev 2021; 92:1574-1589. [PMID: 33476046 PMCID: PMC8451877 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Preferences for pink and blue were tested in children aged 4-11 years in three small-scale societies: Shipibo villages in the Peruvian Amazon, kastom villages in the highlands of Tanna Island, Vanuatu, and BaYaka foragers in the northern Republic of Congo; and compared to children from an Australian global city (total N = 232). No sex differences were found in preference for pink in any of the three societies not influenced by global culture (ds - 0.31-0.23), in contrast to a female preference for pink in the global city (d = 1.24). Results suggest that the pairing of female and pink is a cultural phenomenon and is not driven by an essential preference for pink in girls.
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Jonauskaite D, Sutton A, Cristianini N, Mohr C. English colour terms carry gender and valence biases: A corpus study using word embeddings. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0251559. [PMID: 34061875 PMCID: PMC8168888 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0251559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In Western societies, the stereotype prevails that pink is for girls and blue is for boys. A third possible gendered colour is red. While liked by women, it represents power, stereotypically a masculine characteristic. Empirical studies confirmed such gendered connotations when testing colour-emotion associations or colour preferences in males and females. Furthermore, empirical studies demonstrated that pink is a positive colour, blue is mainly a positive colour, and red is both a positive and a negative colour. Here, we assessed if the same valence and gender connotations appear in widely available written texts (Wikipedia and newswire articles). Using a word embedding method (GloVe), we extracted gender and valence biases for blue, pink, and red, as well as for the remaining basic colour terms from a large English-language corpus containing six billion words. We found and confirmed that pink was biased towards femininity and positivity, and blue was biased towards positivity. We found no strong gender bias for blue, and no strong gender or valence biases for red. For the remaining colour terms, we only found that green, white, and brown were positively biased. Our finding on pink shows that writers of widely available English texts use this colour term to convey femininity. This gendered communication reinforces the notion that results from research studies find their analogue in real word phenomena. Other findings were either consistent or inconsistent with results from research studies. We argue that widely available written texts have biases on their own, because they have been filtered according to context, time, and what is appropriate to be reported.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Adam Sutton
- Department of Computer Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Nello Cristianini
- Department of Computer Science, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Christine Mohr
- Institute of Psychology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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11
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Davis JTM, Hines M. The Magnitude of Children's Gender-Related Toy Interests Has Remained Stable Over 50 Years of Research. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2021; 50:749-751. [PMID: 33811280 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-021-01989-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jac T M Davis
- Gender Development Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Free School Lane, Cambridge, CB2 3RQ, UK.
| | - Melissa Hines
- Gender Development Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Free School Lane, Cambridge, CB2 3RQ, UK
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12
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Christodoulou J, Lac A. Examining the communication of gender roles to parents: a quantitative content analysis of online birth congratulations cards. PSYCHOLOGY & SEXUALITY 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/19419899.2021.1902378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrew Lac
- Department of Psychology, University of Colorado, Colorado Springs, CO, USA
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13
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Souza RRD, Depianti JRB, Bubadué RDM, Mattos CXD, Esperón JMT, Cabral IE. FOR BOYS OR GIRLS? GENDER CULTURAL REPRESENTATIONS IN TOY PACKAGING. TEXTO & CONTEXTO ENFERMAGEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1590/1980-265x-tce-2019-0391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT Objective: to analyze gender-representative images on toy packaging for children over three years of age. Method: this is a photo ethnographic study developed in play sections of six department stores located in one of the municipalities in the metropolitan region of Rio de Janeiro in August 2018. Image analysis was applied to 17 photographs of toy packages according to criteria repetition, content type and low cost to purchase, associated with content analysis. Results: the images partially reflect their content. The gender colors in the packaging and contents are traditional (pink and lilac) and unrealistic in the toys for girls. Those with images of boys have neutral and realistic colors (gray, olive green, navy blue). Miniaturized or life-size toys items “for girls” include those that encourage playing ‘house’ (dish rack and cups), personal care (makeup and clothing) and maternity (dolls). “For boys”, they strengthen the social image of family protector (hero), home provider (tools, builder, and executive) and “male” professions (cook, fireman, policeman). Conclusion: these images reinforce binary conceptions of gender, stereotyped in society, rooting cultural constructions of the adult world in the development of children over three years old.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Renata de Moura Bubadué
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil; Faculdade de Ciências e Educação Sena Aires, Brasil
| | | | | | - Ivone Evangelista Cabral
- Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil; Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Brasil
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14
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Girls Try, Boys Aim High: Exposing Difference in Implied Ability, Activity, and Agency of Girls Versus Boys in Language on McDonald’s Happy Meal Boxes. SEX ROLES 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-020-01173-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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15
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Martin AE, Slepian ML. The Primacy of Gender: Gendered Cognition Underlies the Big Two Dimensions of Social Cognition. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2020; 16:1143-1158. [DOI: 10.1177/1745691620904961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
It is notable that across distinct, siloed, and disconnected areas of psychology (e.g., developmental, personality, social), there exist two dimensions (the “Big Two”) that capture the ways in which people process, perceive, and navigate their social worlds. Despite their subtle distinctions and nomenclature, each shares the same underlying content; one revolves around independence, goal pursuit, and achievement, and the other revolves around other-focus, social orientation, and desire for connection. Why have these two dimensions emerged across disciplines, domains, and decades? Our answer: gender. We argue that the characteristics of the Big Two (e.g., agency/competence, communion/warmth) are reflections of psychological notions of masculinity and femininity that render gender the basis of the fundamental lens through which one sees the social world. Thus, although past work has identified the Big Two as a model to understand social categories, we argue that gender itself is the social category that explains the nature of the Big Two. We outline support for this theory and suggest implications of a gendered cognition in which gender not only provides functional utility for cognitive processing but simultaneously enforces gender roles and limits men and women’s opportunities. Recognizing that the Big Two reflect masculinity and femininity does not confine people to act in accordance with their gender but rather allows for novel interventions to reduce gender-based inequities.
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16
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Nabbijohn AN, MacMullin LN, Kwan KMW, Santarossa A, Peragine DE, Wong WI, VanderLaan DP. Children's bias in appraisals of gender-variant peers. J Exp Child Psychol 2020; 196:104865. [PMID: 32386853 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2020.104865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2019] [Revised: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 04/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Past research suggests that children have biased negative appraisals of gender-variant (GV) peers (i.e., peers who display behaviors/interests that do not align with gender stereotypes). In the current study, Canadian cisgender 4- and 5-year-olds and 8- and 9-year-olds (N = 183; 48.6% girls), who were ethnically diverse (36% White European heritage) and from mostly middle- to upper-income families, viewed vignettes depicting boys and girls as either gender-conforming (GC) or GV. Multiple measures gauged children's appraisals in various domains (i.e., friendship/social preference, popularity, happiness, imitation, and moral judgment). Children's bias against GV peers was modest. Children preferred peers who presented as the same gender and/or with same-gender-typed behaviors/interests. Compared with GC peers, GV peers were rated as less happy, and older children rated a GV boy as less popular. When juxtaposed with a previous study of Hong Kong children that used the same study design, there were several parallels in the patterns observed, but Canadian children had a weaker and less consistent pattern of bias against GV peers than children from Hong Kong. In addition, children from these two cultures showed discrepant patterns for certain aspects of appraisals (e.g., happiness, moral judgment). Overall, these findings inform age-, gender-, and cultural-related influences on children's appraisals of GV peers.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Natisha Nabbijohn
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario L5L 1C6, Canada
| | - Laura N MacMullin
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario L5L 1C6, Canada
| | - Karen Man Wa Kwan
- Department of Psychology, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong
| | - Alanna Santarossa
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario L5L 1C6, Canada
| | - Diana E Peragine
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario L5L 1C6, Canada
| | - Wang Ivy Wong
- Department of Psychology, University of Hong Kong, Pok Fu Lam, Hong Kong; Gender Studies Program, Faculty of Social Science, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, N.T., Hong Kong; Department of Psychology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.
| | - Doug P VanderLaan
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario L5L 1C6, Canada; Child and Youth Psychiatry, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Ontario M5T 1L8, Canada.
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17
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Similarities and differences between genders in the usage of computer with different levels of technological complexity. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2019.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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18
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King RA, Scott KE, Renno MP, Shutts K. Counterstereotyping can change children’s thinking about boys’ and girls’ toy preferences. J Exp Child Psychol 2020; 191:104753. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2019.104753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2019] [Revised: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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19
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Davis JTM, Hines M. How Large Are Gender Differences in Toy Preferences? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Toy Preference Research. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2020; 49:373-394. [PMID: 31989412 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-10019-01624-10507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2018] [Revised: 12/30/2019] [Accepted: 12/31/2019] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
It is generally recognized that there are gender-related differences in children's toy preferences. However, the magnitude of these differences has not been firmly established. Furthermore, not all studies of gender-related toy preferences find significant gender differences. These inconsistent findings could result from using different toys or methods to measure toy preferences or from studying children of different ages. Our systematic review and meta-analysis combined 113 effect sizes from 75 studies to estimate the magnitude of gender-related differences in toy preferences. We also assessed the impact of using different toys or methods to assess these differences, as well as the effect of age on gender-related toy preferences. Boys preferred boy-related toys more than girls did, and girls preferred girl-related toys more than boys did. These differences were large (d ≥ 1.60). Girls also preferred toys that researchers classified as neutral more than boys did (d = 0.29). Preferences for gender-typical over gender-atypical toys were also large and significant (d ≥ 1.20), and girls and boys showed gender-related differences of similar magnitude. When only dolls and vehicles were considered, within-sex differences were even larger and of comparable size for boys and girls. Researchers sometimes misclassified toys, perhaps contributing to an apparent gender difference in preference for neutral toys. Forced choice methods produced larger gender-related differences than other methods, and gender-related differences increased with age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jac T M Davis
- Gender Development Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Free School Lane, Cambridge, CB2 3RQ, UK.
| | - Melissa Hines
- Gender Development Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Free School Lane, Cambridge, CB2 3RQ, UK
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20
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Davis JTM, Hines M. How Large Are Gender Differences in Toy Preferences? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Toy Preference Research. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2020; 49:373-394. [PMID: 31989412 PMCID: PMC7031194 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-019-01624-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2018] [Revised: 12/30/2019] [Accepted: 12/31/2019] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
It is generally recognized that there are gender-related differences in children's toy preferences. However, the magnitude of these differences has not been firmly established. Furthermore, not all studies of gender-related toy preferences find significant gender differences. These inconsistent findings could result from using different toys or methods to measure toy preferences or from studying children of different ages. Our systematic review and meta-analysis combined 113 effect sizes from 75 studies to estimate the magnitude of gender-related differences in toy preferences. We also assessed the impact of using different toys or methods to assess these differences, as well as the effect of age on gender-related toy preferences. Boys preferred boy-related toys more than girls did, and girls preferred girl-related toys more than boys did. These differences were large (d ≥ 1.60). Girls also preferred toys that researchers classified as neutral more than boys did (d = 0.29). Preferences for gender-typical over gender-atypical toys were also large and significant (d ≥ 1.20), and girls and boys showed gender-related differences of similar magnitude. When only dolls and vehicles were considered, within-sex differences were even larger and of comparable size for boys and girls. Researchers sometimes misclassified toys, perhaps contributing to an apparent gender difference in preference for neutral toys. Forced choice methods produced larger gender-related differences than other methods, and gender-related differences increased with age.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jac T M Davis
- Gender Development Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Free School Lane, Cambridge, CB2 3RQ, UK.
| | - Melissa Hines
- Gender Development Research Centre, University of Cambridge, Free School Lane, Cambridge, CB2 3RQ, UK
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Harrop C, Jones DR, Sasson NJ, Zheng S, Nowell SW, Parish-Morris J. Social and Object Attention Is Influenced by Biological Sex and Toy Gender-Congruence in Children With and Without Autism. Autism Res 2019; 13:763-776. [PMID: 31799774 DOI: 10.1002/aur.2245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2019] [Revised: 10/24/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Emerging research suggests social attention in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) girls is enhanced relative to ASD boys but may also be affected by the type of social and nonsocial content presented. This study examined how biological sex and gender norms interact to influence visual attention in 79 school-aged children observing scenes that included gender-associated toys and actors of both sexes. Attention to social (faces) and object activity (hands with toys) stimuli was measured. Previously described distinctions between social attention in ASD boys and girls were replicated, with ASD girls looking more at faces than ASD boys. Irrespective of diagnosis, males and females attended more to actors that shared their same sex, and attended more to toys with gender-associations that were consistent with their own sex, suggesting that social and object salience increases for children under sex-consistent conditions. Importantly, ASD and typically developing (TD) children increased their gaze to faces when male actors were shown playing with female-associated toys, suggesting that both groups of children are sensitive to societal messages about the acceptability of males playing with female-associated toys. Our findings provide further evidence of heightened attention to faces in ASD girls relative to ASD boys, and indicate that social attention in ASD and TD children is influenced by who (male or female actor) and what (male- or female-associated toy) is being observed. Collectively, these results present a nuanced profile of attention in ASD that adds to a growing body of research indicating subtle phenotypic differences in ASD girls that may impact identification, assessment, and intervention. Autism Res 2020, 13: 763-776.. © 2019 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc. LAY SUMMARY: Sex differences observed in typical development may also be present in individuals with autism. In this study, we developed an eye-tracking paradigm featuring videos of boys and girls playing with toys that varied in their gender associations. Attention to faces differed between autistic and non-autistic children but was also influenced by the sex of the actor and gender-association of toys. Autistic females demonstrated subtle attention differences that distinguished them from autistic males and may influence referral, diagnosis, and intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare Harrop
- Department of Allied Health Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Desiree R Jones
- School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas
| | - Noah J Sasson
- School of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, The University of Texas at Dallas, Richardson, Texas
| | - Shuting Zheng
- STAR Center for ASD and NDDs, Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California
| | - Sallie W Nowell
- Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
| | - Julia Parish-Morris
- Center for Autism Research, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Roberts Center for Pediatric Research, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.,Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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Boys Just Don’t! Gender Stereotyping and Sanctioning of Counter-Stereotypical Behavior in Preschoolers. SEX ROLES 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-019-01051-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Ishii K, Numazaki M, Tado'oka Y. The Effect of Pink/Blue Clothing on Implicit and Explicit Gender‐Related Self‐Cognition and Attitudes Among Men. JAPANESE PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/jpr.12241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Age- and Gender-Based Differences in Children’s Interactions with a Gender-Matching Robot. Int J Soc Robot 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s12369-018-0472-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Spinner L, Cameron L, Calogero R. Peer Toy Play as a Gateway to Children's Gender Flexibility: The Effect of (Counter)Stereotypic Portrayals of Peers in Children's Magazines. SEX ROLES 2018; 79:314-328. [PMID: 30147223 PMCID: PMC6096659 DOI: 10.1007/s11199-017-0883-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Extensive evidence has documented the gender stereotypic content of children’s media, and media is recognized as an important socializing agent for young children. Yet, the precise impact of children’s media on the endorsement of gender-typed attitudes and behaviors has received less scholarly attention. We investigated the impact of stereotypic and counter-stereotypic peers pictured in children’s magazines on children’s gender flexibility around toy play and preferences, playmate choice, and social exclusion behavior (n = 82, age 4–7 years-old). British children were randomly assigned to view a picture of a peer-age boy and girl in a magazine playing with either a gender stereotypic or counter-stereotypic toy. In the stereotypic condition, the pictured girl was shown with a toy pony and the pictured boy was shown with a toy car; these toys were reversed in the counter-stereotypic condition. Results revealed significantly greater gender flexibility around toy play and playmate choices among children in the counter-stereotypic condition compared to the stereotypic condition, and boys in the stereotypic condition were more accepting of gender-based exclusion than were girls. However, there was no difference in children’s own toy preferences between the stereotypic and counter-stereotypic condition, with children preferring more gender-typed toys overall. Implications of the findings for media, education, and parenting practices are discussed, and the potential for counter-stereotypic media portrayals of toy play to shape the gender socialization of young children is explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Spinner
- 1School of Psychology, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NP UK
| | - Lindsey Cameron
- 1School of Psychology, University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NP UK
| | - Rachel Calogero
- 2Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, London, ON Canada
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Shapiro DN, Waljee J, Buchman S, Ranganathan K, Warshcausky S. Gender Views and Relationships in Families of Children With Craniofacial Differences. Cleft Palate Craniofac J 2018; 55:189-195. [PMID: 29351045 DOI: 10.1177/1055665617726534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Gender values and beliefs are known to influence family functioning. The aim of the current study was to describe the association between views about gender and family functioning within families with a child with a craniofacial difference (CFD). DESIGN Participants included 74 dyads composed of children (8-18 years old) with CFD (n = 36 female), including cleft lip/palate, and a parent (n = 56 female). Children and caregivers both completed the activities subscale of the Occupations, Activities, and Traits-Attitudes Measure (C/OAT-AM). Children completed selected items from the Parent Perception Inventory (PPI). Caregivers completed the nurturance subscale of the Parenting Dimensions Inventory-Short Form (PDI-S) and the Parenting Stress Scale (PSS). SETTING Participants were recruited from an outpatient program at an academic medical center. RESULTS There were no significant relationships among the participant demographics and the study variables, with the exception that more complex CFD diagnoses were correlated with increased parenting stress. General linear modeling showed that parents with more flexible gender attitudes reported more nurturing parenting behaviors. There was also a positive association between parental flexibility in gender views and child-reported parent-child relationship quality. An interaction showed that the relationship between parental flexibility in gender views and child-reported relationship quality was stronger for females and nonsignificant for males. CONCLUSIONS Caregivers with more flexible gender attitudes perceived themselves as more nurturing and were seen more positively by their daughters with a CFD. This pattern may inform parenting interventions for CFD populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danielle N Shapiro
- 1 Division of Rehabilitation Psychology and Neuropsychology, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, The University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Jennifer Waljee
- 2 Section of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Steven Buchman
- 2 Section of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Kavitha Ranganathan
- 2 Section of Plastic Surgery, Department of Surgery, University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Seth Warshcausky
- 1 Division of Rehabilitation Psychology and Neuropsychology, Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, The University of Michigan Health System, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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Yeung SP, Wong WI. Gender Labels on Gender-Neutral Colors: Do they Affect Children’s Color Preferences and Play Performance? SEX ROLES 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-017-0875-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Reich SM, Black RW, Foliaki T. Constructing Difference: Lego® Set Narratives Promote Stereotypic Gender Roles and Play. SEX ROLES 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-017-0868-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Wagner L. Factors Influencing Parents' Preferences and Parents' Perceptions of Child Preferences of Picturebooks. Front Psychol 2017; 8:1448. [PMID: 28919869 PMCID: PMC5585774 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2017] [Accepted: 08/10/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examined factors influencing parents' preferences and their perceptions of their children's preferences for picturebooks. First, a content analysis was conducted on a set of picturebooks (N = 87) drawn from the sample described in Wagner (2013); Then, parents (N = 149) rated the books and several content properties were examined for their ability to predict parents' preferences and their perception of their children's preferences. The initial content analysis found correlated clusters of disparate measures of complexity (linguistic, cognitive, narrative) and identified a distinctive sub-genre of modern books featuring female protagonists. The experimental preference analysis found that parents' own preferences were most influenced by the books' age and status; parents' perceptions of their children's preferences were influenced by gender, with parents perceiving their sons (but not daughters) as dis-preferring books with female protagnoists. In addition, influences of the child's reading ability and the linguistic complexity of the book on preferences suggested a sensitivity to the cultural practice of joint book-reading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Wagner
- Department of Psychology, The Ohio State UniversityColumbus, OH, United States
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Murnen SK, Greenfield C, Younger A, Boyd H. Boys Act and Girls Appear: A Content Analysis of Gender Stereotypes Associated with Characters in Children’s Popular Culture. SEX ROLES 2015. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-015-0558-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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