Gender-Role Differences in Spatial Ability: A Meta-Analytic Review

Hormonal contraceptives and behavior: Updating the potent state of the nascent science

Hundreds of millions of people worldwide use hormonal contraceptives (HCs), which have been an essential part of women's reproductive health care for decades. Throughout that time, however, research on the neural and behavioral consequences of HCs was minimal and plagued by poor methodology. HC effects - and users - were assumed to be homogenous. Fortunately, there has been a recent upswell in the number and quality of investigations, affording tentative conclusions about the roles of HCs in spatial cognition and mental health, particularly depression. Thus, this paper leverages findings from the past few years to highlight the heterogeneous aspects of use that seem to matter for behavior - ranging from variation in hormonal contraceptive formulations and routes of administration to individual differences among users linked to age and reproductive health history. This paper closes with five tips for future research that will help capture and clarify heterogeneity in potential relations between HCs and behavior, namely data collection, regional access, lifespan factors, gender, and collaboration. HCs are sociopolitically provocative and research on their potential behavioral neuroendocrine impacts is becoming increasingly popular. It is, therefore, imperative for scientists to conduct replicable and robust empirical investigations, and to communicate findings with the nuance that the heterogeneity among users and effects requires.

Daily Gender and Cognition: A Person-Specific Behavioral Network Analysis

Gender is person-specific, and it influences and is influenced by a breadth of multidimensional psychological factors, including cognition. Directionality is important for research on gender and cognition, as debate surrounds, for instance, whether masculine self-concepts precede spatial skills, or whether the reverse is true. In order to provide novel insights into the individualized nature of these relations, a person-specific network approach devised by Peter Molenaar and the first author - group iterative multiple model estimation for multiple solutions (GIMME-MS) - was applied to 75-day intensive longitudinal data on gender self-concept (i.e., femininity-masculinity, instrumentality, and expressivity) and cognition (i.e., mental rotations and verbal recall) from 103 young adults. GIMME-MS estimates individualized networks that contain same-day and next-day directed relations, prioritizing relations common across participants. It is ideal for analyzing behavioral time series with unclear directionality, as it generates multiple solutions from which an optimal one is selected. GIMME-MS revealed notable heterogeneity in the presence, direction, and nature of relations from gender self-concept to cognition (∼26% of participants) and vice versa (∼21% of participants). Findings are wholly novel in revealing the person-specific nature of gender and its cognitive dynamics, yet somehow, unsurprising given the revolutionary corpus of Peter Molenaar.

Cultural determinants of the gap between self-estimated navigation ability and wayfinding performance: evidence from 46 countries

Cognitive abilities can vary widely. Some people excel in certain skills, others struggle. However, not all those who describe themselves as gifted are. One possible influence on self-estimates is the surrounding culture. Some cultures may amplify self-assurance and others cultivate humility. Past research has shown that people in different countries can be grouped into a set of consistent cultural clusters with similar values and tendencies, such as attitudes to masculinity or individualism. Here we explored whether such cultural dimensions might relate to the extent to which populations in 46 countries overestimate or underestimate their cognitive abilities in the domain of spatial navigation. Using the Sea Hero Quest navigation test and a large sample (N = 383,187) we found cultural clusters of countries tend to be similar in how they self-rate ability relative to their actual performance. Across the world population sampled, higher self-ratings were associated with better performance. However, at the national level, higher self-ratings as a nation were not associated with better performance as a nation. Germanic and Near East countries were found to be most overconfident in their abilities and Nordic countries to be most under-confident in their abilities. Gender stereotypes may play a role in mediating this pattern, with larger national positive attitudes to male stereotyped roles (Hofstede's masculinity dimension) associated with a greater overconfidence in performance at the national level. We also replicate, with higher precision than prior studies, evidence that older men tend to overestimate their navigation skill more than other groups. These findings give insight into how culture and demographics may impact self-estimates of our abilities.

Explaining World-Wide Variation in Navigation Ability from Millions of People: Citizen Science Project Sea Hero Quest

Navigation ability varies widely across humans. Prior studies have reported that being younger and a male has an advantage for navigation ability. However, these studies have generally involved small numbers of participants from a handful of western countries. Here, we review findings from our project Sea Hero Quest, which used a video game for mobile and tablet devices to test 3.9 million people on their navigation ability, sampling across every nation-state and from 18 to 99 years of age. Results revealed that the task has good ecological validity and across all countries sufficiently sampled (N = 63), age is linked to a near-linear decline in navigation ability from the early 20s. All countries showed a male advantage, but this varied considerably and could be partly predicted by gender inequality. We found that those who reported growing up in a city were on average worse at navigating than those who grew up outside cities and that navigation performance helped identify those at greater genetic risk of Alzheimer's disease. We discuss the advantages and challenges of using a mobile app to study cognition and the future avenues for understanding individual differences in navigation ability arising from this research.

Weak associations between personality and contraceptive choice

Prospective randomized controlled trials on hormonal contraceptive (HC) effects on the brain are rare due to a number of methodological challenges. Thus, much of the evidence on HC effects on the brain comes from cross-sectional studies comparing HC-users to non-users. In interpreting these findings, it is of importance to be aware of potential confounds associated with women's contraceptive choices. Previous studies have discussed age, education, social status, sexual orientation, relationship status, and tolerability of HC. Given the current trend toward a reduction in HC use and increased skepticism toward HC it seems relevant to also identify variables associated with women's attitudes toward HC and whether they may represent confounds for neuroscientific studies. In the present study, we investigated whether women's personality characteristics were associated with their choice to use or not use HC in the present, past and future and the type of HC chosen. 1,391 females aged 18-45 years participated in an online survey including the HEXACO-60 personality questionnaire, as well as two different measures of gender role, and provided information about their current and previous contraceptive status, as well as experiences with and attitudes toward contraceptive use. We compared (i) current, previous and never-users of HC, (ii) prospective users of HC to women who opposed future HC use, and (iii) current users of IUDs to current users of oral contraceptives. Results revealed that associations between personality and the decision to use or not use HC were negligible, while differences in personality were observed corresponding to contraceptive type. Current users of IUDs showed higher agreeableness and extraversion compared to current users of oral contraceptives. The results suggest that personality is more strongly associated to the choice of contraceptive type rather than the choice between hormonal and non-hormonal options.

Learning to play a musical instrument in the middle school is associated with superior audiovisual working memory and fluid intelligence: A cross-sectional behavioral study

Music training, in all its forms, is known to have an impact on behavior both in childhood and even in aging. In the delicate life period of transition from childhood to adulthood, music training might have a special role for behavioral and cognitive maturation. Among the several kinds of music training programs implemented in the educational communities, we focused on instrumental training incorporated in the public middle school curriculum in Italy that includes both individual, group and collective (orchestral) lessons several times a week. At three middle schools, we tested 285 preadolescent children (aged 10–14 years) with a test and questionnaire battery including adaptive tests for visuo-spatial working memory skills (with the Jack and Jill test), fluid intelligence (with a matrix reasoning test) and music-related perceptual and memory abilities (with listening tests). Of these children, 163 belonged to a music curriculum within the school and 122 to a standard curriculum. Significant differences between students of the music and standard curricula were found in both perceptual and cognitive domains, even when controlling for pre-existing individual differences in musical sophistication. The music children attending the third and last grade of middle school had better performance and showed the largest advantage compared to the control group on both audiovisual working memory and fluid intelligence. Furthermore, some gender differences were found for several tests and across groups in favor of females. The present results indicate that learning to play a musical instrument as part of the middle school curriculum represents a resource for preadolescent education. Even though the current evidence is not sufficient to establish the causality of the found effects, it can still guide future research evaluation with longitudinal data.

Spatial anxiety and self-confidence mediate sex/gender differences in mental rotation

A recent meta-synthesis study with a sample of >12 million participants revealed that the male advantage in mental rotation (MR) is the largest cognitive sex/gender difference found in psychological literature. MR requires test takers to mentally rotate three-dimensional cubic figures under time restrictions. Previous studies have investigated how biological and social factors contribute to cognitive sex/gender differences in tasks of this type. Spatial anxiety and self-confidence in MR tasks have received less attention. The present study investigated the contribution of these psychological factors to sex/gender differences in MR performance. Participants (n = 269) completed two MR tasks that differed in task difficulty. Participants also indicated their self-confidence (for each item) and spatial anxiety. The results revealed that pronounced sex/gender differences in spatial anxiety and self-confidence mediate sex/gender in MR performance, especially when task demands are high. The current findings suggest that task-irrelevant factors that are not spatial cognitive in nature contribute largely to the well-known medium to large sex/gender differences in MR. Future studies should further explore mechanisms underlying cognitive sex/gender differences within a biopsychosocial approach.

Revisiting gendered parenting of adolescents: understanding its effects on psychosocial development

Introduction: Today's adolescents are growing up in a unique sociocultural climate in which gender issues are highly prominent. Alongside new ways of understanding gender identity, there are persistent gender disparities in social, health and mental health outcomes despite increasingly egalitarian views and a significant public focus on sexual assault and gender-based violence. Given gender-differentiated outcomes emerge during adolescence, it is critical to revisit factors influencing adolescent gender development. It has been argued that gendered parenting, reflected in differences in parenting attitudes and behaviors directed towards boys and girls, influences gender development. While numerous studies have examined gendered parenting with children, there has been no previous synthesis of gendered parenting of adolescents. Method: The current narrative review presents an overview of research into gendered parenting of adolescents, including parental modelling, gendered environments, and specific parenting practices, and draws together the available research on how it impacts adolescents. Gendered parenting is also examined in the context of LGBTQI + and gender non-conforming adolescents. Results: There is limited research investigating the presence of gendered parenting of adolescents, and even less assessing its impact on adolescent psychosocial outcomes. The available literature suggests that there may be effects of gendered parenting on adolescents, particularly on their gender role attitudes and gender-typed behaviors. Conclusions: Future work is needed to better understand how gendered parenting of adolescents manifests in the family home. In addition, research is needed to examine the longitudinal impact of gendered parenting, particularly within non-traditional families, and across a range of sociocultural contexts.

Age and sex impact on visuospatial working memory (VSWM), mental rotation, and cognitive strategies during navigation

This study assessed the impact of sex and typical aging on visuospatial working memory (VSWM), mental rotations, and navigational strategies using behavioral information. Fifty healthy participants regrouped in older (OA) and young adults (YA) performed the Walking Corsi test (WalCT) and the Redrawn Mental Rotation Test (MRT) to explore mental rotation abilities. We recorded kinematic data such as locomotion trajectories, and spatial orientations during navigation. We created a new method of data analysis for the WalCT performances and compared it with the classical approach. This original method allowed us to identify cognitive strategies based on errors analysis. Our data suggested that VSWM and mental rotation capacities in locomotion were modulated by age (YA scored higher than OA), and sex (Young Adult Males (YA-M) having higher performance than Young Adult Females (YA-F). We observed a preferential use of cognitive strategies related to sex; YA-F relied more on egocentric strategies whereas YA-M relied more on allocentric strategies. The preferential use of cognitive strategies in the YA group was not observed in the OA group producing more random errors per sequence. The results suggest the effects that age and sex have on VSWM, cognitive strategies, and mental rotation during navigation and highlight the importance of navigational strategies training.

Gender Differences in Self-Estimated Intelligence: Exploring the Male Hubris, Female Humility Problem

Despite evidence from cognitive psychology that men and women are equal in measured intelligence, gender differences in self-estimated intelligence (SEI) are widely reported with males providing systematically higher estimates than females. This has been termed the male hubris, female humility effect. The present study explored personality factors that might explain this. Participants (N = 228; 103 male, 125 female) provided self-estimates of their general IQ and for Gardner’s multiple intelligences, before completing the Cattell Culture Fair IQ test as an objective measure of intelligence. They also completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) as a measure of sex-role identification, and measures of general and academic self-esteem. Both gender and sex-role differences were observed for SEI, with males and participants of both genders who scored high in masculinity offering higher self-estimates. By comparing estimated and observed IQ, we were able to rule out gender differences in overall accuracy but observed a pattern of systematic underestimation in females. An hierarchical multiple regression showed significant independent effects of gender, masculinity, and self-esteem. Mixed evidence was observed for gender differences in the estimation of multiple intelligences, though moderately sized sex-role differences were observed. The results offer a far more nuanced explanation for the male hubris, female humility effect that includes the contribution of sex role identification to individual and group differences.

The Link Between Masculinity and Spatial Skills Is Moderated by the Estrogenic and Progestational Activity of Oral Contraceptives

Conversations about gender and spatial skills frequently dissolve into a hackneyed debate over nature and nurture. This is particularly true for conversations concerning three-dimensional (3D) mental rotations skill, which shows the largest gender difference of all aspects of cognition, with men-on average-outperforming women. To advance this empirical area of inquiry, biopsychosocial influences on spatial skills should be considered, and a unique opportunity do to that is provided by combined oral contraceptives (OCs). OCs with relatively low estradiol doses and with highly androgenic progestins have been positively related to spatial skills. Gender self-concepts, including masculine and feminine self-perceptions, have also been positively related to spatial skills. It is wholly unknown, however, whether the exogenous sex hormones contained in OCs moderate the link between self-perceived masculinity and 3D mental rotations. This study filled that knowledge gap by utilizing a sample of 141 naturally cycling (NC) women and 229 OC users who completed a computerized survey and cognitive tests. A series of moderation analyses examined whether the link between masculinity and 3D mental rotations depended on pill use or on the estrogenic, progestational, or androgenic activity in OCs, which were operationalized using a novel coding scheme. Results showed that the positive masculinity-3D mental rotations link was only present for NC women, presumably because it was altered by the exogenous hormones in OCs. Indeed, the link was accentuated in users of OCs with relatively low estrogenic and high progestational activity. Future research on menstrual cycle and pill phase is needed, but these findings importantly delineate ways in which biological and psychosocial factors combine to explain variation in spatial skills among women. They also suggest that focus should be placed on the under-investigated progestational activity of OCs, which is facilitated by the novel quantification of OC action used in this study. Thus, this research increases understanding of the neurocognitive and behavioral correlates of ovarian hormones and has implications for the betterment of women's health.

Exploring the sex and gender correlates of cognitive sex differences

The correlates of cognitive sex differences are yet to be fully understood. Many biological and psychosocial factors modulate these cognitive abilities leading to mixed results in the scientific literature. The current study aims to explore the different parameters potentially influencing cognitive abilities acting in synergy. Sex and gender correlates of cognitive functioning were assessed in a sample of individuals ages 18 to 45 years (N = 87) from diverse sexual orientations. Sex hormones were assessed via saliva samples at four timepoints throughout the testing. Gender roles, sexual orientation and socio-demographics were measured via self-report questionnaires. Participants completed mental rotation and verbal fluency tasks. Men performed better than women at mental rotation, while no significant difference was found for verbal fluency. Significant positive associations were observed between estradiol and word fluency for the naturally cycling women compared to the women using oral contraception. While controlling for sex hormones, a significant interaction effect of sex by gender roles was identified for mental rotation among masculine women. These exploratory results suggest an effect principally driven by sex and sex hormones on cognitive performance that will need to be furthered with larger studies.

The Effects of Gendered Parenting on Child Development Outcomes: A Systematic Review

Gender role development occurs in the earliest months and years of a child's life. Parental attitudes, behaviours and modelling are likely to play a significant role in this process; however, to date no review has been conducted to consolidate knowledge of the effects of differential parenting on child development. This systematic review aimed to investigate the evidence for differential parenting behaviours based on child gender that affect child development, across six areas (vocalisation, socialisation, play, toys, dress and décor). Searches were conducted for English article using four databases: psycINFO, CINAHL, Sociological Abstract, and SCOPUS. The inclusion criteria were biological or adoptive parents, of a typically developing child aged below five, using any parenting behaviour or strategies that differed by child gender. 45 studies were included in this systematic review (14 vocalisation, 21 socialisation, 7 play, 3 toys). A variety of gender-differentiated parenting behaviours and child outcomes were examined. The review found evidence that parents do respond differently to their children. Parents vocalised differently, used different socialising strategies, played differently and provided different toys to their sons and daughters. This differential parenting was associated with some differences in child development across child gender, including differences in child vocalisation, displays of affect, pain responses, compliance, toy play and aggression. However, the overall quality of the evidence, the lack of longitudinal studies and the heterogeneous nature of the outcomes examined suggest the need for a systematic approach to examining the nature and effects of differential parenting on children's development.

Androgen receptor polymorphism, mental rotation, and spatial visualization in men

Circulating levels of testosterone (T) have been hypothesized to influence spatial cognition in adult men, but empirical support for this idea is mixed. Many of testosterone's effects are mediated by the classic nuclear androgen receptor (AR), which contains a polymorphic glutamine repeat (CAG repeat sequence) that varies significantly across individual men and confers differences in receptor function and therefore individual responsivity to T. We genotyped the AR CAG repeat length in 146 healthy adult men who also performed cognitive tests of mental rotation and spatial visualization. Circulating T concentrations were measured in saliva. CAG repeat length was found to be a significant predictor of spatial scores on tests of visualization but not mental rotation. A weaker AR was associated with lower visualization scores. In contrast, T itself, but not CAG repeat length predicted scores on two mental rotation tests. These results support the view that T action in the brain modestly influences spatial cognition in healthy men, but suggest that T's effects on mental rotation might not be AR-dependent and instead occur through an alternative mechanism.

Oral contraceptive use is not related to gender self-concept

Oral contraceptive (OC) use is a valuable and underutilized natural experiment for examining exogenous hormone effects on aspects of cognition and behavior, especially aspects that show sex or gender differences. OC use, however, is not randomly assigned; women who use OCs may systematically differ from non-users for gender-linked reasons that potentially confound investigations of the pharmacokinetic effects of OCs. Thus, the primary aim of this study was to investigate whether OC users and non-users differ in gender self-concepts, as sociocultural factors might influence who uses OCs and why. A secondary aim was to examine whether OC users of different pill formulations differ in gender self-concept. Multivariate analyses of covariance (controlling for age) on a large sample of 395 young adult women revealed no significant differences between OC users (n = 247) and non-users (n = 148) in four aspects of gender self-concept (expressivity, instrumentality, femininity, and masculinity), with univariate effect sizes averaging d = 0.07. Moreover, inferences about group differences did not change when considering sociocultural factors (i.e., reason for OC use) or pharmacokinetic properties of the pills (i.e., androgenicity). Thus, findings indicate that differences in gender self-concept do not underlie OC use and non-use, and that the androgenicity of different OC formulations does not impact gender self-concept. Taken together, findings also highlight the specificity of exogenous ovarian hormone influences, as there are documented effects on cognition but not on personal characteristics, such as gender self-concept.

Correlating Spatial Ability With Anatomy Assessment Performance: A Meta-Analysis

Interest in spatial ability has grown over the past few decades following the emergence of correlational evidence associating spatial aptitude with educational performance in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. The research field at large and the anatomy education literature on this topic are mixed. In an attempt to generate consensus, a meta-analysis was performed to objectively summarize the effects of spatial ability on anatomy assessment performance across multiple studies and populations. Relevant studies published within the past 50 years (1969-2019) were retrieved from eight databases. Study eligibility screening was followed by a full-text review and data extraction. Use of the Mental Rotations Test (MRT) was required for study inclusion. Out of 2,450 screened records, 15 studies were meta-analyzed. Seventy-three percent of studies (11 of 15) were from the United States and Canada, and the majority (9 of 15) studied professional students. Across 15 studies and 1,245 participants, spatial ability was weakly associated with anatomy performance (r_pooled  = 0.240; CI at 95% = 0.09, 0.38; P = 0.002). Performance on spatial and relationship-based assessments (i.e., practical assessments and drawing tasks) was correlated with spatial ability, while performance on assessments utilizing non-spatial multiple-choice items was not correlated with spatial ability. A significant sex difference was also observed, wherein males outperformed females on spatial ability tasks. Given the role of spatial reasoning in learning anatomy, educators are encouraged to consider curriculum delivery modifications and a comprehensive assessment strategy so as not to disadvantage individuals with low spatial ability.

Mixed Assessment of Virtual Serious Games Applied in Architectural and Urban Design Education

The creation and usage of serious games on virtual reality (VR) and/or interactive platforms for the teaching of architecture, construction, urban planning, and other derived areas, such as security and risk prevention, require design processes, studies, and research that lead to further consolidation expansion. In that sense, this paper presents two main aims developed: the improvement of a virtual navigation system through the results of previous user studies and mixed research (quantitative and qualitative) improved based on the user perception for educational and professional uses. The VR system used is based on Unreal Engine programming of the HTC Vive sensor. This study is related to the GAME4City 3.0 and a broader project focused on gamified visualization and its educational uses in architectural and urban projects. The results reflect great interest, good usability, and high motivation for further usage for all types of users. However, an apparent resistance to deepen its use continues to be perceived in academia. Based on the research results, weak points of educational gamified systems have been identified, and the main differences and needs in user profiles' function. With these data, progress regarding implementing this kind of system at the teaching and professional levels must be pursued.

Male sexual orientation, gender nonconformity, and neural activity during mental rotations: an fMRI study

The cross-sex shift hypothesis predicts that gay men should perform more like heterosexual women on important neurocognitive tasks on which men score higher than women, such as mental rotation. Studies also suggest sex differences exist in the neural correlates of mental rotation. However, no studies have taken sexual orientation into account or considered within-group variation attributable to recalled gender nonconformity (a developmental trait reliably associated with human nonheterosexuality). We quantified the neural correlates of mental rotation by comparing two groups of gay men, gender conforming (n = 23) and gender nonconforming (n = 23), to gender conforming heterosexual men (n = 22) and women (n = 22). We observed a sex difference between heterosexual men and women in the premotor cortex/supplementary motor cortex and left medial superior frontal gyrus. We also observed a sex difference as well as a cross-sex shift in gay men who recalled being gender nonconforming as children in the right superior frontal gyrus, right angular gyrus, right amygdala/parahippocampal gyrus, and bilaterally in the middle temporal gyrus and precuneus. Thus, cross-sex shifts may be associated with underlying developmental factors which are associated with sexual orientation (such as gender nonconformity). The results also suggest that gay men should not be studied as a homogenous group.

Studying Individual Differences in Spatial Cognition Through Differential Item Functioning Analysis

Background: In the field of spatial cognition, the study of individual differences represents a typical research topic. Gender and age have been prominently investigated. A promising statistical technique used to identify the different responses to items in relation to different group memberships is the Differential Item Functioning Analysis (DIF). The aim of the present study was to investigate the DIF of the Landmark positioning on a Map (LPM) task, across age groups (young and elderly) and gender, in a sample of 400 healthy human participants. Methods: LPM is a hometown map completion test based on well-known and familiar landmarks used to assess allocentric mental representations. DIF was assessed on LPM items two times: on categorical (i.e., positions) and coordinate (i.e., distances) scores, separately. Results: When positions and distances were difficult to assess with respect to the intended reference point, the probability to endorse the items seemed to get worse for the elderly compared to the younger participants. Instead other features of landmarks (high pleasantness, restorativeness) seemed to improve the elderly performance. A gender-related improvement of probability to endorse distance estimation of some landmarks, favoring women, emerged, probably associated with their repeated experiences with those landmarks. Overall, the complexity of the task seemed to have a differential impact on young and elderly people while gender-oriented activities and places seemed to have a differential impact on men and women. Conclusions: For the first time DIF was applied to a spatial mental representation task, based on the schematic sketch maps of the participants. The application of DIF to the study of individual differences in spatial cognition should become a systematic routine to early detect differential items, improving knowledge, as well as experimental control, on individual differences.

Spatial anxiety mediates the sex difference in adult mental rotation test performance

Mental rotation ability is associated with successful advances in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) education and occupations. Meta-analyses have shown consistent sex disparities in mental rotation, where men outperform women on one measure of mental rotation ability, the Mental Rotations Test (MRT). Spatial anxiety, or the fear and apprehension felt when completing a task that requires spatial thinking, was proposed as a mechanism explaining the relation between sex and mental rotation test performance. This study modified the Spatial Anxiety Scale (SAS) to include questions about how anxious individuals feel when they must mentally rotate items to accomplish a task (e.g., playing Tetris). An exploratory factor analysis was conducted to assess the factorial structure of the modified spatial anxiety scale. Three factor loadings were extracted representing the ability to navigate, mentally rotate objects, and visualize objects. Furthermore, we analyzed the role of spatial anxiety and trait anxiety as potential mediators of the relation between participant sex and mental rotation performance. Spatial anxiety partially mediated the link between the sex of the participants and the MRT performance controlling for trait anxiety. Only navigation and mental rotation anxiety significantly mediated the relation between participant sex and mental rotation performance. We posit spatial anxiety as a barrier to efficient and accurate spatial thinking, and suggest that reducing spatial anxiety has the potential to improve spatial skills and reduce sex differences in mental rotation test performance. To ascertain this, an experimental design can determine whether a reduction in spatial anxiety causes changes in mental rotation test scores.

Exploring Science Career Interest: Latent Profile Analysis of High School Occupational Preferences for Science

The present study evaluates high school juniors and seniors ( n = 295) to explore their preference for science as indicated by science motivation, attitude, academic experience, and interest. Latent profile analysis was used to model profiles of preferences for science with a person-centered approach. Then, the impact of self-concept variables was explored and four profiles of science interest were identified. Gender differences were of particular interest due to concerns noted in the literature, and some gender differences were identified in the present study. Covariate analysis indicated vocabulary ability and personality as significantly different for students in the high science interest profile. Implications of these results and future research directions are discussed.

Beyond Biological Sex: Interactive Effects of Gender Role and Sex Hormones on Spatial Abilities

Sex differences in spatial abilities are well documented, even though their underlying causes are poorly understood. Some studies assume a biological basis of these differences and study the relationship of sex hormone levels to spatial abilities. Other studies assume social influences and study the relationship of gender role (masculinity/femininity) to spatial abilities. Contemporary theories postulate a psychobiosocial model of sex differences in spatial abilities, in which both biological (e.g., hormonal) and psychosocial (e.g., gender role) variables interactively modulate spatial abilities. However, few studies have addressed both aspects simultaneously. Accordingly, the present study explores potential interactive effects between gender role and sex hormones on spatial performance. 41 men and 41 women completed a mental rotation and a virtual navigation task. Sex hormone levels and gender role were assessed in all participants. Sex differences favoring men were observed in both tasks. We found that neither sex hormones nor gender role alone emerged as mediators of these sex differences. However, several interactive effects between gender role and sex hormones were identified. Combined effects of masculinity and testosterone were observed for those variables that displayed sex differences. Participants with both, high masculinity and high testosterone showed the best performance. However, this association was further modulated by biological sex and progesterone levels. Furthermore, we observed an interactive effect of femininity, estradiol and testosterone on response times in both tasks. Consistent across both tasks and irrespective of biological sex, testosterone related to response times in participants with low estradiol levels, depending on their femininity. In participants with low femininity, testosterone was related to slower reaction times, while in participants with higher femininity, testosterone was related to faster reaction times.

Diferencias en imagen mental entre individuos españoles e italianos

Son pocos los estudios que miden la viveza de imagen entre individuos de diferentes países, por eso, en nuestra investigación deseábamos averiguar si existían diferencias significativas entre los individuos de España y de Italia, y entre las mujeres y hombres, en tres tipos de imágenes mentales: viveza de imagen, control de imagen, y habilidad para la imagen espacial. Para ello, seleccionamos un grupo de 103 estudiantes universitarios italianos y otro grupo de 110 estudiantes universitarios españoles a los que se les aplicaron tres tipos de test: un test que medía viveza de imagen, otro que medía el control de imagen, y el tercero que medía la habilidad de imagen espacial. Se encontró que el género no influía en ninguna de las medidas de imagen utilizada, sin embargo, el país influyó en el control de imagen. Los españoles obtuvieron puntuaciones, en control de imagen, significativamente superiores a las que obtuvieron los individuos italianos. Se necesitan nuevos estudios que midan estos y otros tipos de imagen, en estos y en otros países, para llegar a tener un conocimiento de cómo se distribuye la capacidad de imagen por todo el mundo.  

Sex Hormones and Gender Role Relate to Gray Matter Volumes in Sexually Dimorphic Brain Areas

The present study investigates the relationship of circulating sex hormone levels and gender role to gray matter volumes in sexually dimorphic brain areas and explores, whether these relationships are modulated by biological sex (as assigned at birth based on sexual anatomy) or oral contraceptive (OC) use. It was hypothesized that testosterone and masculinity relate positively to gray matter volumes in areas that are typically larger in men, like the hippocampus or cerebellum, while estradiol/progesterone and femininity relate positively to gray matter volumes in the frontal cortex. To that end, high resolution structural MRI scans, sex hormone levels and gender role self-assessments were obtained in a large sample 89 men, 89 naturally cycling (NC) women, and 60 OC users. Men showed larger regional gray matter volumes than women in the cerebellum and bilateral clusters spanning the putamen and parts of the hippocampi/parahippocampi and fusiform gyri. In accordance with our hypotheses, a significant positive association of testosterone to hippocampal volumes was observed in women irrespective of OC use. Participant's self-reported femininity was significantly positively associated with gray matter volumes in the left middle frontal gyrus (MFG) in men. In addition several differences between OC-users and NC women were identified.

Gender Differences in Large-Scale and Small-Scale Spatial Ability: A Systematic Review Based on Behavioral and Neuroimaging Research

Background: As we human beings are living in a multidimensional space all the time. Therefore, spatial ability is vital for the survival and development of individuals. However, males and females show gender differences in this ability. So, are these gender differences influenced by the scale type of spatial ability? It's not well specified. Therefore, to tackle this issue, we conducted the current research from the behavioral and neural level. Methods: Study 1 used the general meta-analysis method to explore whether individuals display the same gender differences in large- and small-scale spatial ability. Study 2 used the method of Activation Likelihood Estimation to identify the commonalities and distinctions of the brain activity between males and females on large- and small-scale spatial ability. Results: Study 1 showed that in behavior performance, males outperformed females in both large-scale and small-scale spatial ability, but the effect size of the gender difference in large-scale spatial ability is significantly greater than that in small-scale spatial ability. In addition, Study 2 showed that in terms of neural activity, males and females exhibited both similarities and differences no matter in large-scale or small-scale spatial ability. Especially, the contrast analysis between females and males demonstrated a stronger activation in the brain regions of bilateral lentiform nucleus and bilateral parahippocampal gyrus in large-scale spatial ability, and correspondence in right sub-gyral, right precuneus, and left middle frontal gyrus in small-scale spatial ability. Conclusions: The results indicated that the reason why females performed not so well in large-scale spatial ability was that they were more susceptible to emotions and their parahippocampal gyrus worked less efficiently than males; females performed not so well in small-scale spatial ability because they mostly adopted the egocentric strategy and their sub-gyral also worked less efficiently than males. The two different reasons have made for gender differences in favor of males in terms of spatial ability and such gender differences have different manifestations in large-scale and small-scale spatial ability. Possible implications of the results for understanding the issue of gender differences in spatial ability are discussed.

The Effects of Native Language and Gender on Procedure Performance

OBJECTIVE

Evaluation of effects of native language-native (L1) versus nonnative (L2)-on procedure performance.

BACKGROUND

Written procedures are used by global industries to facilitate accurate and safe performance of hazardous tasks. Often companies require that all employees be sufficiently literate in English and to use only English versions.

METHOD

Industrial tasks were tested using a virtual reality industrial environment (Second Life^®) to explore effects on procedural performance and safety statement adherence. Fifty-four engineering students (27 L2) participated in the study to explore the native language variable. The participants completed the procedures under time pressure and were scored according to procedure performance and hazard comprehension.

RESULTS

Analysis of eight procedures showed significant differences between L1 and L2 for procedure performance (specifically for L2 females). There were no language fluency or hazard comprehension differences found between the two groups.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that (a) the lower procedure performance of L2 readers was not due to English proficiency but more likely to time pressure; (b) implications regarding single language procedures are not fully understood, particularly with regard to gender differences.

APPLICATION

This research is applicable to high-risk industries providing single language, time critical procedures to multilingual workforces.

Global Determinants of Navigation Ability

Human spatial ability is modulated by a number of factors, including age [1-3] and gender [4, 5]. Although a few studies showed that culture influences cognitive strategies [6-13], the interaction between these factors has never been globally assessed as this requires testing millions of people of all ages across many different countries in the world. Since countries vary in their geographical and cultural properties, we predicted that these variations give rise to an organized spatial distribution of cognition at a planetary-wide scale. To test this hypothesis, we developed a mobile-app-based cognitive task, measuring non-verbal spatial navigation ability in more than 2.5 million people and sampling populations in every nation state. We focused on spatial navigation due to its universal requirement across cultures. Using a clustering approach, we find that navigation ability is clustered into five distinct, yet geographically related, groups of countries. Specifically, the economic wealth of a nation was predictive of the average navigation ability of its inhabitants, and gender inequality was predictive of the size of performance difference between males and females. Thus, cognitive abilities, at least for spatial navigation, are clustered according to economic wealth and gender inequalities globally, which has significant implications for cross-cultural studies and multi-center clinical trials using cognitive testing.

From What Age Is Mental Rotation Training Effective? Differences in Preschool Age but Not in Sex

Currently, there is evidence that spatial skills training leads to an improvement of such skills, although studies with children in the Preschool stage are very scarce. This paper aims to examine the effectiveness of mental rotation (MR) training and sex differences in preschool children. Two experiments were carried out. Experiment 1 included 59 children of 1st course (aged between 3 and 4 years) and Experiment 2, 61 children of 2nd course (aged between 4 and 5 years) of Preschool Education, distributed into control and training groups. The results showed a significant improvement in the MR ability of the training group (measured through a different test than the one used for training) only in the older children, and a tendency toward significance in the younger participants. Moreover, no sex differences in MR or group differences across age groups were found. These results regarding MR training support the malleability of spatial skills approach, particularly in 4–5 year-old preschoolers. This malleability should be enhanced in our educational system, as well as the implementation of educational and social policies that tend toward equality between sexes in the development of spatial skills. This can promote an equitable access to academic careers requiring high spatial skills such as engineering, science, technology or mathematics, in which nowadays women are underrepresented.

Butch-Femme Identity and Visuospatial Performance Among Lesbian and Bisexual Women in China

Lesbian and bisexual women who self-identify as "butch" show a masculine profile with regard to gender roles, gender nonconformity, and systemizing cognitive style, whereas lesbian and bisexual women who self-identify as "femme" show a corresponding feminine profile and those who self-identify as "androgynes" show an intermediate profile. This study examined the association between butch or femme lesbian or bisexual identity and visuospatial ability among 323 lesbian and bisexual women, compared to heterosexual women (n = 207) and men (n = 125), from multiple cities in China. Visuospatial ability was assessed using a Shepard and Metzler-type mental rotation task and Judgment of Line Angle and Position (JLAP) test on the Internet. Heterosexual men outperformed heterosexual women on both mental rotation and JLAP tasks. Lesbian and bisexual women outperformed heterosexual women on mental rotation, but not on JLAP. There were significant differences in mental rotation performance among women, with butch- and androgyne-identified lesbian/bisexual women outperforming femme-identified and heterosexual women. There were also significant differences in JLAP performance among women, with butch- and androgyne-identified lesbian/bisexual women and heterosexual women outperforming femme-identified lesbian/bisexual women. The butch-femme differences in visuospatial ability indicated an association between cognitive ability and butch-femme identity and suggest that neurobiological underpinnings may contribute to butch-femme identity although alternative explanations exist.

Sex differences in the human visual system

This Mini-Review summarizes a wide range of sex differences in the human visual system, with a primary focus on sex differences in visual perception and its neural basis. We highlight sex differences in both basic and high-level visual processing, with evidence from behavioral, neurophysiological, and neuroimaging studies. We argue that sex differences in human visual processing, no matter how small or subtle, support the view that females and males truly see the world differently. We acknowledge some of the controversy regarding sex differences in human vision and propose that such controversy should be interpreted as a source of motivation for continued efforts to assess the validity and reliability of published sex differences and for continued research on sex differences in human vision and the nervous system in general. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Sex Differences in Gray Matter Volume of the Right Anterior Hippocampus Explain Sex Differences in Three-Dimensional Mental Rotation

Behavioral studies have reported that males perform better than females in 3-dimensional (3D) mental rotation. Given the important role of the hippocampus in spatial processing, the present study investigated whether structural differences in the hippocampus could explain the sex difference in 3D mental rotation. Results showed that after controlling for brain size, males had a larger anterior hippocampus, whereas females had a larger posterior hippocampus. Gray matter volume (GMV) of the right anterior hippocampus was significantly correlated with 3D mental rotation score. After controlling GMV of the right anterior hippocampus, sex difference in 3D mental rotation was no longer significant. These results suggest that the structural difference between males’ and females’ right anterior hippocampus was a neurobiological substrate for the sex difference in 3D mental rotation.

"Female Preponderance" of Depression in Non-clinical Populations: A Meta-Analytic Study

Clinical observations and research suggest a female preponderance in major depressive disorder. However, it is unclear whether a similar gender difference is found for the reporting of depressive symptoms in non-clinical populations. The present meta-analysis was conducted to address this issue. We searched for published papers targeting non-clinical populations in which the 21-item Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) was used. Eighty-four papers (91 studies) published between 1977 and 2014 were included in the final meta-analysis, which comprised 23,579 males and 29,470 females. Females in the general population reported higher level of depressive symptoms than males (d = -0.187, corresponding to 1.159 points in the 21-item BDI). This pattern was not found to influence by years of publication, socioeconomic status, or version of the BDI used. Using age group as a moderator, studies with adolescents and young adults were found to show a smaller effect size than studies with older participants. Our results appear to confirm the “female preponderance” in the level of self-report depressive symptoms in the general population, and support the social gender role theory in explaining gender difference over biological susceptibility theory and evolutionary theory.

Implicit and Explicit Gender Beliefs in Spatial Ability: Stronger Stereotyping in Boys than Girls

Sex differences in spatial ability are a seriously debated topic, given the importance of spatial ability for success in the fields of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) and girls' underrepresentation in these domains. In the current study we investigated the presence of stereotypic gender beliefs on spatial ability (i.e., "spatial ability is for boys") in 10- and 12-year-old children. We used both an explicit measure (i.e., a self-report questionnaire) and an implicit measure (i.e., a child IAT). Results of the explicit measure showed that both sexes associated spatial ability with boys, with boys holding more male stereotyped attitudes than girls. On the implicit measure, boys associated spatial ability with boys, while girls were gender-neutral. In addition, we examined the effects of gender beliefs on spatial performance, by experimentally activating gender beliefs within a pretest-instruction-posttest design. We compared three types of instruction: boys are better, girls are better, and no sex differences. No effects of these gender belief instructions were found on children's spatial test performance (i.e., mental rotation and paper folding). The finding that children of this age already have stereotypic beliefs about the spatial capacities of their own sex is important, as these beliefs may influence children's choices for spatial leisure activities and educational tracks in the STEM domain.