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Chen N, Nakamura K, Watanabe K. An automatic red-female association tested by the Stroop task. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2023; 238:103982. [PMID: 37478774 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2023.103982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 06/25/2023] [Accepted: 07/05/2023] [Indexed: 07/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Colors have been reported to be associated with genders (e.g., reddish color-females). Here, we investigated color-gender associations (red-female/green-male) among Japanese participants using two Stroop-word categorization tasks. Ten Japanese gendered words were chosen as visual stimuli. In Experiment 1 (N = 23), participants were instructed to indicate whether a target word presented in either red, green, or gray font color was a masculine or feminine word. Results showed a congruency effect of red-female association that red font color facilitated the categorization of feminine words and inhibited the categorization of masculine words compared to other colors. No significant effect of green-male association was observed. Experiment 2 (N = 23 newly recruited participants) examined whether the congruency effect of color-gender associations could bias perceptual font color categorization. Participants were asked to discriminate whether the font color, with low saturation, was red or green while ignoring the word's meaning. Results showed that participants responded faster and made fewer errors when categorizing red font colors for feminine words than masculine words. Additionally, a congruent effect of green-male association on performance accuracy was observed, although it did not affect response times. These results indicate the existence of an automatically activated red-female association, which can influence both conceptual gender categorization and perceptual color processing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Chen
- The Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel.
| | - Koyo Nakamura
- Faculty of Psychology, Department of Cognition, Emotion, Methods in Psychology, University of Vienna, Vienna 1010, Austria; Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo 102-0083, Japan; Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo 169-8555, Japan
| | - Katsumi Watanabe
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, Tokyo 169-8555, Japan
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Traditionally and Narrowly Defined: Gender Portrayals in Television Programming Targeting Babies and Toddlers. SEX ROLES 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11199-022-01286-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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3
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Wang Y, Qian M, Nabbijohn AN, Wen F, Fu G, Zuo B, VanderLaan DP. Culture influences the development of children's gender-related peer preferences: Evidence from China and Thailand. Dev Sci 2021; 25:e13221. [PMID: 34942036 DOI: 10.1111/desc.13221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2020] [Revised: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Current understanding of how culture relates to the development of children's gender-related peer preferences is limited. To investigate the role of societal acceptance of gender nonconformity, this study compared children from China and Thailand. Unlike China and other cultures where the conceptualization of gender as binary is broadly accepted, individuals who identify as a nonbinary "third" sex/gender have been highly visible and tolerated in Thai society for at least several decades. Chinese and Thai 4- to 9-year-olds (N = 458) viewed vignettes of four hypothetical peers who varied on gender (i.e., boy vs. girl) and gender-typed toy play behavior (i.e., masculine vs. feminine), and were asked to give a friendship preference rating for each peer. Chinese, compared with Thai, children evidenced gender-related peer preferences that emerged earlier, remained more stable across age groups, and were relatively more biased against gender-nonconforming behavior. The only cultural similarity was in children's preference for peers who were of the same gender and/or displayed same-gender-typed behavior. Thus, while preference for peers who are of the same gender and/or display same-gender-typed behavior is common among children across cultures, the developmental onset and course of these preferences vary by culture. Moreover, societal acceptance of gender nonconformity might be key to limiting children's bias against gender-nonconforming peers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Wang
- Central China Normal University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Miao Qian
- Department of Psychology, University of Detroit Mercy, Michigan, USA
| | - A Natisha Nabbijohn
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Psychology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Fangfang Wen
- Central China Normal University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Genyue Fu
- School of Education, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Bin Zuo
- Central China Normal University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Doug P VanderLaan
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario, Canada.,Child and Youth Psychiatry, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Qian M, Wang Y, Wong WI, Fu G, Zuo B, VanderLaan DP. The Effects of Race, Gender, and Gender-Typed Behavior on Children's Friendship Appraisals. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2021; 50:807-820. [PMID: 33169294 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-020-01825-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
From a young age, children's peer appraisals are influenced by the social categories to which peers belong based on factors such as race and gender. To date, research regarding the manner in which race- and gender-related factors might interact to influence these appraisals has been limited. The present study employed an experimental vignette paradigm to investigate the relative influences of target peers' race, gender, and gender-typed behavior toward 4- to 6-year-old Chinese children's (N = 119, 62 girls, 57 boys) peer appraisals. Appraisals were assessed via (1) a rating scale measuring children's interest in being friends with a range of hypothetical target peers varying in race, gender, and gender-typed behavior, and (2) a forced-choice rank-order task in which children indicated their preferences for four hypothetical target peers who varied from themselves on either race, gender, or gender-typed behavior, or were similar to themselves on all three traits. There was little evidence to suggest children's rank-ordered peer preferences in relation to race were influenced by whether the other-race presented was White (preferred relatively more) or Black (preferred relatively less). In contrast, gender-related factors (i.e., rater gender, target gender, target gender-typed behavior) had more robust influences on peer preferences for both outcome measures. Gender-conforming peers were preferred over gender-nonconforming peers, and target boys displaying feminine behavior were less preferred than target girls displaying masculine behavior. The results help characterize cross-cultural (in)consistencies in children's social preferences in relation to peers' race and gender.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miao Qian
- Applied Psychology and Human Development, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
- Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Yang Wang
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Social Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Wang Ivy Wong
- Department of Psychology, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong, China
- Department of Psychology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Genyue Fu
- School of Education, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Bin Zuo
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Social Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | - Doug P VanderLaan
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Mississauga, Room 4098, Deerfield Hall, 3359 Mississauga Road, Mississauga, ON, L5L 1C6, Canada.
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Wen F, Zuo B, Wang Y, Ma S, Song S, Zhang H. Non-Pregnant and Pregnant Women's Femininity Preferences in Male Faces: Tests Based on Within- and Between-Sex Sexual Dimorphism Facial Manipulations. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2021; 50:531-541. [PMID: 33398708 PMCID: PMC7889572 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-020-01868-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Past research on women's preferences for male facial masculinity in Western cultures has produced inconsistent results. Some inconsistency may be related to the use of different facial stimulus manipulations (e.g., between-sex sexual dimorphic facial manipulation or within-sex sexual dimorphic facial manipulation) that do not perfectly avoid non-facial cues, and pregnancy status may also influence women's face preferences. We therefore recruited pregnant and nonpregnant Chinese women and manipulated the sexual dimorphism of male facial stimuli to explore the influences of manipulation methods, non-facial cues, and pregnancy status on face preferences. Results showed that: (1) in contrast with a general masculinity preference observed in Western cultures, both pregnant and nonpregnant Chinese women preferred feminized and neutral male faces generally; (2) pregnant women's preference for feminized male faces was stable across manipulation methods, while nonpregnant women preferred feminized male faces except under between-sex sexual dimorphism manipulation; and (3) manipulation methods, rather than non-facial cues, influenced participants' face preferences. Specifically, women showed the strongest preferences for femininity when face stimuli were manipulated by within-sex sexual dimorphic facial manipulation, followed by unmanipulated faces and between-sex sexual dimorphic facial manipulation. This effect was stronger for nonpregnant women in the unmanipulated condition and for pregnant women in the between-sex sexual dimorphic facial manipulation. This research provides empirical evidence of women's preferences for sexual dimorphism in male faces in a non-Western culture, as well as the effects of facial manipulation methods, pregnancy status, and the interactions between these factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangfang Wen
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Social Psychology, Central China Normal University, Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior, Ministry of Education, Wuhan, 430079, China
| | - Bin Zuo
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Social Psychology, Central China Normal University, Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior, Ministry of Education, Wuhan, 430079, China.
| | - Yang Wang
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Social Psychology, Central China Normal University, Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior, Ministry of Education, Wuhan, 430079, China
| | - Shuhan Ma
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Social Psychology, Central China Normal University, Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior, Ministry of Education, Wuhan, 430079, China
| | - Shijie Song
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Social Psychology, Central China Normal University, Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior, Ministry of Education, Wuhan, 430079, China
| | - Hongxia Zhang
- Xiantao First People's Hospital of Hubei Province, Xiantao, China
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Wen F, Zuo B, Wang Y, Wu Y, Fang Z, Ma S. The (Continuous) Nature of Perceived Gender Counter-Stereotype: A Threshold Model of Gender Stereotype Maintenance. ARCHIVES OF SEXUAL BEHAVIOR 2020; 49:2511-2530. [PMID: 32588256 DOI: 10.1007/s10508-020-01763-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2018] [Revised: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
People often expect men and women to look, act, and think like typical members of their gender groups. When men and women deviate from gender-stereotypical expectations across various domains, people tend to denigrate them, compared to those who follow stereotypical expectations. This derogatory attitude-termed the backlash effect-has been well supported by psychological research. However, previous studies on the backlash effect have often neglected the fact that men and women can be counter-stereotypical of their gender groups, to varying degrees. This research tried to address this continuous nature of counter-stereotypical characteristics in various domains using six experiments to evaluate individual responses to gendered facial cues, behaviors, and psychological traits. We conducted three studies, with two experiments per study. Most importantly, this research proposed a threshold model of gender stereotype maintenance to explain people's evaluations of gender-counter-stereotypical targets across various domains. The threshold model suggested that appraisal for a target with balanced gender-stereotypical and gender-counter-stereotypical characteristics tends to be more positive than for a target who strictly adheres to gender stereotypes or gender-counter-stereotypical characteristics. The results of all three studies supported the threshold model, which demonstrated a curvilinear pattern of participants' appraisals and targets' gender-counter-stereotypical degrees. The threshold model of stereotype maintenance has enriched the traditional stereotype maintenance theory and enlightened the development of a more effective impression management strategy. Moreover, it provided more ecological validity that treated gender counter-stereotype as a continuum rather than a binary variable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangfang Wen
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Social Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, 430079, China
| | - Bin Zuo
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Social Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, 430079, China.
| | - Yang Wang
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Social Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, 430079, China
| | - Yang Wu
- Academy of Marxism, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Zeming Fang
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Shuhan Ma
- School of Psychology, Center for Studies of Social Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, 430079, China
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