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Nifant’ev IE, Komarov PD, Kostomarova OD, Kolosov NA, Ivchenko PV. MAO- and Borate-Free Activating Supports for Group 4 Metallocene and Post-Metallocene Catalysts of α-Olefin Polymerization and Oligomerization. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:3095. [PMID: 37514483 PMCID: PMC10384419 DOI: 10.3390/polym15143095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 07/15/2023] [Accepted: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Modern industry of advanced polyolefins extensively uses Group 4 metallocene and post-metallocene catalysts. High-throughput polyolefin technologies demand the use of heterogeneous catalysts with a given particle size and morphology, high thermal stability, and controlled productivity. Conventional Group 4 metal single-site heterogeneous catalysts require the use of high-cost methylalumoxane (MAO) or perfluoroaryl borate activators. However, a number of inorganic phases, containing highly acidic Lewis and Brønsted sites, are able to activate Group 4 metal pre-catalysts using low-cost and affordable alkylaluminums. In the present review, we gathered comprehensive information on MAO- and borate-free activating supports of different types and discussed the surface nature and chemistry of these phases, examples of their use in the polymerization of ethylene and α-olefins, and prospects of the further development for applications in the polyolefin industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilya E. Nifant’ev
- A.V. Topchiev Institute of Petrochemical Synthesis, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky Av. 29, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (I.E.N.); (P.D.K.)
- Chemistry Department, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1-3, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Pavel D. Komarov
- A.V. Topchiev Institute of Petrochemical Synthesis, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky Av. 29, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (I.E.N.); (P.D.K.)
| | | | - Nikolay A. Kolosov
- NIOST LLC, Kuzovlevsky Tr. 2-270, 634067 Tomsk, Russia; (O.D.K.); (N.A.K.)
| | - Pavel V. Ivchenko
- A.V. Topchiev Institute of Petrochemical Synthesis, Russian Academy of Sciences, Leninsky Av. 29, 119991 Moscow, Russia; (I.E.N.); (P.D.K.)
- Chemistry Department, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Leninskie Gory 1-3, 119991 Moscow, Russia
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2
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Zaera F. Designing Sites in Heterogeneous Catalysis: Are We Reaching Selectivities Competitive With Those of Homogeneous Catalysts? Chem Rev 2022; 122:8594-8757. [PMID: 35240777 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
A critical review of different prominent nanotechnologies adapted to catalysis is provided, with focus on how they contribute to the improvement of selectivity in heterogeneous catalysis. Ways to modify catalytic sites range from the use of the reversible or irreversible adsorption of molecular modifiers to the immobilization or tethering of homogeneous catalysts and the development of well-defined catalytic sites on solid surfaces. The latter covers methods for the dispersion of single-atom sites within solid supports as well as the use of complex nanostructures, and it includes the post-modification of materials via processes such as silylation and atomic layer deposition. All these methodologies exhibit both advantages and limitations, but all offer new avenues for the design of catalysts for specific applications. Because of the high cost of most nanotechnologies and the fact that the resulting materials may exhibit limited thermal or chemical stability, they may be best aimed at improving the selective synthesis of high value-added chemicals, to be incorporated in organic synthesis schemes, but other applications are being explored as well to address problems in energy production, for instance, and to design greener chemical processes. The details of each of these approaches are discussed, and representative examples are provided. We conclude with some general remarks on the future of this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Zaera
- Department of Chemistry and UCR Center for Catalysis, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
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3
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Aldrich KE, Odom AL. Titanium-Catalyzed Hydroamination and Multicomponent Coupling with a Simple Silica-Supported Catalyst. Organometallics 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.organomet.8b00313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kelly E. Aldrich
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, 578 South Shaw Lane, East Lansing, Michigan 48823, United States
| | - Aaron L. Odom
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, 578 South Shaw Lane, East Lansing, Michigan 48823, United States
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4
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Zhang J, Motta A, Gao Y, Stalzer MM, Delferro M, Liu B, Lohr TL, Marks TJ. Cationic Pyridylamido Adsorbate on Brønsted Acidic Sulfated Zirconia: A Molecular Supported Organohafnium Catalyst for Olefin Homo- and Co-Polymerization. ACS Catal 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.8b00611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jialong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, People’s Republic of China
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Alessandro Motta
- Dipartimento di Scienze Chimiche, Università di Roma “La Sapienza” and INSTM, UdR Roma, I-00185 Roma, Italy
| | - Yanshan Gao
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Madelyn Marie Stalzer
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Massimiliano Delferro
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Boping Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, People’s Republic of China
| | - Tracy L. Lohr
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Tobin J. Marks
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
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5
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Culver DB, Tafazolian H, Conley MP. A Bulky Pd(II) α-Diimine Catalyst Supported on Sulfated Zirconia for the Polymerization of Ethylene and Copolymerization of Ethylene and Methyl Acrylate. Organometallics 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.organomet.8b00016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Damien B. Culver
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Hosein Tafazolian
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Matthew P. Conley
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
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6
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Copéret C, Comas-Vives A, Conley MP, Estes DP, Fedorov A, Mougel V, Nagae H, Núñez-Zarur F, Zhizhko PA. Surface Organometallic and Coordination Chemistry toward Single-Site Heterogeneous Catalysts: Strategies, Methods, Structures, and Activities. Chem Rev 2016; 116:323-421. [PMID: 26741024 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.5b00373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 493] [Impact Index Per Article: 61.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christophe Copéret
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zürich , Vladimir Prelog Weg 1-5, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Aleix Comas-Vives
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zürich , Vladimir Prelog Weg 1-5, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Matthew P Conley
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zürich , Vladimir Prelog Weg 1-5, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Deven P Estes
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zürich , Vladimir Prelog Weg 1-5, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Alexey Fedorov
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zürich , Vladimir Prelog Weg 1-5, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Victor Mougel
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zürich , Vladimir Prelog Weg 1-5, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Haruki Nagae
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zürich , Vladimir Prelog Weg 1-5, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland.,Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering Science, Osaka University, CREST , Toyonaka, Osaka 560-8531, Japan
| | - Francisco Núñez-Zarur
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zürich , Vladimir Prelog Weg 1-5, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Pavel A Zhizhko
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zürich , Vladimir Prelog Weg 1-5, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland.,A. N. Nesmeyanov Institute of Organoelement Compounds, Russian Academy of Sciences , Vavilov str. 28, 119991 Moscow, Russia
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7
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Gu W, Stalzer MM, Nicholas CP, Bhattacharyya A, Motta A, Gallagher JR, Zhang G, Miller JT, Kobayashi T, Pruski M, Delferro M, Marks TJ. Benzene Selectivity in Competitive Arene Hydrogenation: Effects of Single-Site Catalyst···Acidic Oxide Surface Binding Geometry. J Am Chem Soc 2015; 137:6770-80. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.5b03254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Weixing Gu
- Department
of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Madelyn Marie Stalzer
- Department
of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Christopher P. Nicholas
- Exploratory Catalysis Research, UOP LLC, a Honeywell Company, 25 East Algonquin Road, Des Plaines, Illinois 60017, United States
| | - Alak Bhattacharyya
- Exploratory Catalysis Research, UOP LLC, a Honeywell Company, 25 East Algonquin Road, Des Plaines, Illinois 60017, United States
| | - Alessandro Motta
- Dipartimento
di Chimica, Universita’ degli Studi di Roma “La Sapienza” and INSTM UdR Roma, p.le A. Moro 5, I-00185, Roma, Italy
| | - James R. Gallagher
- Chemical
Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois 60439 United States
| | - Guanghui Zhang
- Chemical
Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois 60439 United States
| | - Jeffrey T. Miller
- Chemical
Sciences and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, Illinois 60439 United States
| | - Takeshi Kobayashi
- U.S.
DOE Ames Laboratory, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011-3020, United States
| | - Marek Pruski
- U.S.
DOE Ames Laboratory, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011-3020, United States
- Department
of Chemistry, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011-3020, United States
| | - Massimiliano Delferro
- Department
of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Tobin J. Marks
- Department
of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
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8
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Zijlstra HS, Harder S. Methylalumoxane – History, Production, Properties, and Applications. Eur J Inorg Chem 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/ejic.201402978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Harmen S. Zijlstra
- Stratingh Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG Groningen, Netherlands
- Dutch Polymer Institute (DPI), P. O. Box 902, 5600 AX Eindhoven, Netherlands
| | - Sjoerd Harder
- Dutch Polymer Institute (DPI), P. O. Box 902, 5600 AX Eindhoven, Netherlands
- Inorganic and Organometallic Chemistry, University of Erlangen‐Nürnberg, Egerlandstr. 1, 91058 Erlangen, Germany, http://www.harder‐research.com
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9
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Kermagoret A, Kerber RN, Conley MP, Callens E, Florian P, Massiot D, Delbecq F, Rozanska X, Copéret C, Sautet P. Chlorodiethylaluminum supported on silica: A dinuclear aluminum surface species with bridging μ2-Cl-ligand as a highly efficient co-catalyst for the Ni-catalyzed dimerization of ethene. J Catal 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcat.2014.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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10
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Catalytic consequences of open and closed grafted Al(III)-calix[4]arene complexes for hydride and oxo transfer reactions. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2013; 110:2484-9. [PMID: 23359705 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1211158110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
An approach for the control and understanding of supported molecular catalysts is demonstrated with the design and synthesis of open and closed variants of a grafted Lewis acid active site, consisting of Al(III)-calix[4]arene complexes on the surface of silica. The calixarene acts as a molecular template that enforces open and closed resting-state coordination geometries surrounding the metal active sites, due to its lower-rim substituents as well as site isolation by virtue of its steric bulk. These sites are characterized and used to elucidate mechanistic details and connectivity requirements for reactions involving hydride and oxo transfer. The consequence of controlling open versus closed configurations of the grafted Lewis acid site is demonstrated by the complete lack of observed activity of the closed site for Meerwein-Ponndorf-Verley (MPV) reduction; whereas, the open variant of this catalyst has an MPV reduction activity that is virtually identical to previously reported soluble molecular Al(III)-calix[4]arene catalysts. In contrast, for olefin epoxidation using tert-butyl-hydroperoxide as oxidant, the open and closed catalysts exhibit similar activity. This observation suggests that for olefin epoxidation catalysis using Lewis acids as catalyst and organic hydroperoxide as oxidant, covalent binding of the hydroperoxide is not required, and instead dative coordination to the Lewis acid center is sufficient for catalytic oxo transfer. This latter result is supported by density functional theory calculations of the transition state for olefin epoxidation catalysis, using molecular analogs of the open and closed catalysts.
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11
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Díaz U, Brunel D, Corma A. Catalysis using multifunctional organosiliceous hybrid materials. Chem Soc Rev 2013; 42:4083-97. [DOI: 10.1039/c2cs35385g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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12
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Kerber RN, Kermagoret A, Callens E, Florian P, Massiot D, Lesage A, Copéret C, Delbecq F, Rozanska X, Sautet P. Nature and structure of aluminum surface sites grafted on silica from a combination of high-field aluminum-27 solid-state NMR spectroscopy and first-principles calculations. J Am Chem Soc 2012; 134:6767-75. [PMID: 22440230 DOI: 10.1021/ja3008566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The determination of the nature and structure of surface sites after chemical modification of large surface area oxides such as silica is a key point for many applications and challenging from a spectroscopic point of view. This has been, for instance, a long-standing problem for silica reacted with alkylaluminum compounds, a system typically studied as a model for a supported methylaluminoxane and aluminum cocatalyst. While (27)Al solid-state NMR spectroscopy would be a method of choice, it has been difficult to apply this technique because of large quadrupolar broadenings. Here, from a combined use of the highest stable field NMR instruments (17.6, 20.0, and 23.5 T) and ultrafast magic angle spinning (>60 kHz), high-quality spectra were obtained, allowing isotropic chemical shifts, quadrupolar couplings, and asymmetric parameters to be extracted. Combined with first-principles calculations, these NMR signatures were then assigned to actual structures of surface aluminum sites. For silica (here SBA-15) reacted with triethylaluminum, the surface sites are in fact mainly dinuclear Al species, grafted on the silica surface via either two terminal or two bridging siloxy ligands. Tetrahedral sites, resulting from the incorporation of Al inside the silica matrix, are also seen as minor species. No evidence for putative tri-coordinated Al atoms has been found.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Nathaniel Kerber
- Université de Lyon, CNRS, Institut de Chimie de Lyon, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, 46 allée d'Italie, F-69364 Lyon Cedex 07, France
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13
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Pelletier J, Espinas J, Vu N, Norsic S, Baudouin A, Delevoye L, Trébosc J, Le Roux E, Santini C, Basset JM, Gauvin RM, Taoufik M. A well-defined silica-supported aluminium alkyl through an unprecedented, consecutive two-step protonolysis–alkyl transfer mechanism. Chem Commun (Camb) 2011; 47:2979-81. [DOI: 10.1039/c0cc04986g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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15
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Linnolahti M, Severn J, Pakkanen T. Formation of Nanotubular Methylaluminoxanes and the Nature of the Active Species in Single‐Site α‐Olefin Polymerization Catalysis. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2008. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200802558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mikko Linnolahti
- Department of Chemistry, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu (Finland), Fax: (+358) 13‐251‐3390
| | - John R. Severn
- Borealis Polymers Oy, P.O. Box 330, 06101 Porvoo (Finland)
| | - Tapani A. Pakkanen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu (Finland), Fax: (+358) 13‐251‐3390
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16
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Linnolahti M, Severn J, Pakkanen T. Formation of Nanotubular Methylaluminoxanes and the Nature of the Active Species in Single‐Site α‐Olefin Polymerization Catalysis. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2008; 47:9279-83. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.200802558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mikko Linnolahti
- Department of Chemistry, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu (Finland), Fax: (+358) 13‐251‐3390
| | - John R. Severn
- Borealis Polymers Oy, P.O. Box 330, 06101 Porvoo (Finland)
| | - Tapani A. Pakkanen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Joensuu, P.O. Box 111, 80101 Joensuu (Finland), Fax: (+358) 13‐251‐3390
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17
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Hicks JC, Mullis BA, Jones CW. Sulfonic acid functionalized SBA-15 silica as a methylaluminoxane-free cocatalyst/support for ethylene polymerization. J Am Chem Soc 2007; 129:8426-7. [PMID: 17579417 DOI: 10.1021/ja0727870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jason C Hicks
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, 311 Ferst Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-0100, USA
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18
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Kim SH, Somorjai GA. Surface science of single-site heterogeneous olefin polymerization catalysts. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2006; 103:15289-94. [PMID: 17032776 PMCID: PMC1622820 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0602346103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
This article reviews the surface science of the heterogeneous olefin polymerization catalysts. The specific focus is on how to prepare and characterize stereochemically specific heterogeneous model catalysts for the Ziegler-Natta polymerization. Under clean, ultra-high vacuum conditions, low-energy electron irradiation during the chemical vapor deposition of model Ziegler-Natta catalysts can be used to create a "single-site" catalyst film with a surface structure that produces only isotactic polypropylene. The polymerization activities of the ultra-high vacuum-prepared model heterogeneous catalysts compare well with those of conventional Ziegler-Natta catalysts. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopic analyses identify the oxidation states of the Ti ions at the active sites. Temperature-programmed desorption distinguishes the binding strength of a probe molecule to the active sites that produce polypropylenes having different tacticities. These findings demonstrate that a surface science approach to the preparation and characterization of model heterogeneous catalysts can improve the catalyst design and provide fundamental understanding of the single-site olefin polymerization process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seong H. Kim
- *Department of Chemical Engineering, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802; and
| | - Gabor A. Somorjai
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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Taha ZA, Deguns EW, Chattopadhyay S, Scott SL. Formation of Digallium Sites in the Reaction of Trimethylgallium with Silica. Organometallics 2006. [DOI: 10.1021/om051034o] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ziyad A. Taha
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5080
| | - Eric W. Deguns
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5080
| | - Swarup Chattopadhyay
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5080
| | - Susannah L. Scott
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106-5080
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20
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Severn JR, Chadwick JC, Duchateau R, Friederichs N. “Bound but Not Gagged”Immobilizing Single-Site α-Olefin Polymerization Catalysts. Chem Rev 2005; 105:4073-147. [PMID: 16277372 DOI: 10.1021/cr040670d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 371] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John R Severn
- Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
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