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Ankhanbaatar U, Auer A, Ulziibat G, Settypalli TBK, Gombo-Ochir D, Basan G, Takemura T, Tseren-Ochir EO, Ouled Ahmed H, Meki IK, Datta S, Soumare B, Metlin A, Cattoli G, Lamien CE. Comparison of the Whole-Genome Sequence of the African Swine Fever Virus from a Mongolian Wild Boar with Genotype II Viruses from Asia and Europe. Pathogens 2023; 12:1143. [PMID: 37764951 PMCID: PMC10536492 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12091143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2023] [Revised: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF) is a highly contagious and severe viral hemorrhagic disease in domestic and wild pigs. ASF seriously affects the global swine industry as the mortality rate can reach 100% with highly virulent strains. In 2007, ASF was introduced into the Caucasus and spread to Russia and later into other European and Asian countries. This study reported the first whole-genome sequence (WGS) of the ASF virus (ASFV) that was detected in a Mongolian wild boar. This sequence was then compared to other WGS samples from Asia and Europe. Results show that the ASFV Genotype II from Mongolia is similar to the Asian Genotype II WGS. However, there were three nucleotide differences found between the Asian and European genome sequences, two of which were non-synonymous. It was also observed that the European Genotype II ASFV WGS was more diverse than that of the Asian counterparts. The study demonstrates that the ASFV Genotype II variants found in wild boars and domestic pigs are highly similar, suggesting these animals might have had direct or indirect contact, potentially through outdoor animal breeding. In conclusion, this study provides a WGS and mutation spectrum of the ASFV Genotype II WGS in Asia and Europe and thus provides important insights into the origin and spread of ASFV in Mongolia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulaankhuu Ankhanbaatar
- Laboratory of Viral Animal Diseases Diagnostic and Surveillance, State Central Veterinary Laboratory, Ulaanbaatar 17029, Mongolia
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Mongolian University of Life Sciences, Ulaanbaatar 17029, Mongolia
| | - Agathe Auer
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Centre for Nuclear Applications in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency, Friedenstrasse 1, 2444 Seibersdorf, Austria
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO-UN), Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy
| | - Gerelmaa Ulziibat
- Laboratory of Viral Animal Diseases Diagnostic and Surveillance, State Central Veterinary Laboratory, Ulaanbaatar 17029, Mongolia
| | - Tirumala B. K. Settypalli
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Centre for Nuclear Applications in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency, Friedenstrasse 1, 2444 Seibersdorf, Austria
| | - Delgerzul Gombo-Ochir
- Laboratory of Viral Animal Diseases Diagnostic and Surveillance, State Central Veterinary Laboratory, Ulaanbaatar 17029, Mongolia
| | - Ganzorig Basan
- Laboratory of Viral Animal Diseases Diagnostic and Surveillance, State Central Veterinary Laboratory, Ulaanbaatar 17029, Mongolia
| | - Taichiro Takemura
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Centre for Nuclear Applications in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency, Friedenstrasse 1, 2444 Seibersdorf, Austria
| | | | - Hatem Ouled Ahmed
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Centre for Nuclear Applications in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency, Friedenstrasse 1, 2444 Seibersdorf, Austria
| | - Irene Kasindi Meki
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Centre for Nuclear Applications in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency, Friedenstrasse 1, 2444 Seibersdorf, Austria
| | - Sneha Datta
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Centre for Nuclear Applications in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency, Friedenstrasse 1, 2444 Seibersdorf, Austria
| | - Baba Soumare
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO-UN), Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy
| | - Artem Metlin
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO-UN), Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, Italy
| | - Giovanni Cattoli
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Centre for Nuclear Applications in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency, Friedenstrasse 1, 2444 Seibersdorf, Austria
| | - Charles E. Lamien
- Animal Production and Health Laboratory, Joint FAO/IAEA Centre for Nuclear Applications in Food and Agriculture, Department of Nuclear Sciences and Applications, International Atomic Energy Agency, Friedenstrasse 1, 2444 Seibersdorf, Austria
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Mthombeni RF, Bastos AD, van Schalkwyk A, van Emmenes J, Heath L. Phylogenomic Comparison of Seven African Swine Fever Genotype II Outbreak Viruses (1998-2019) Reveals the Likely African Origin of Georgia 2007/1. Pathogens 2023; 12:1129. [PMID: 37764936 PMCID: PMC10537866 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12091129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Since the initial report of African swine fever (ASF) in Kenya in 1921, the disease has predominantly been confined to Africa. However, in 2007, an ASF genotype II virus of unknown provenance was introduced to Georgia. This was followed by its rampant spread to 73 countries, and the disease is now a global threat to pig production, with limited effective treatment and vaccine options. Here, we investigate the origin of Georgia 2007/1 through genome sequencing of three viruses from outbreaks that predated the genotype II introduction to the Caucasus, namely Madagascar (MAD/01/1998), Mozambique (MOZ/01/2005), and Mauritius (MAU/01/2007). In addition, genome sequences were generated for viruses from East African countries historically affected by genotype II (Malawi (MAL/04/2011) and Tanzania (TAN/01/2011)) and newly invaded southern African countries (Zimbabwe (ZIM/2015) and South Africa (RSA/08/2019). Phylogenomic analyses revealed that MOZ/01/2005, MAL/04/2011, ZIM/2015 and RSA/08/2019 share a recent common ancestor with Georgia 2007/1 and that none contain the large (~550 bp) deletion in the MGT110 4L ORF observed in the MAD/01/1998, MAU/01/2007 and TAN/01/2011 isolates. Furthermore, MOZ/01/2005 and Georgia 2007/1 only differ by a single synonymous SNP in the EP402R ORF, confirming that the closest link to Georgia 2007/1 is a virus that was circulating in Mozambique in 2005.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rivalani F Mthombeni
- Agricultural Research Council-Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa
- Department of Zoology & Entomology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa
| | - Armanda D Bastos
- Department of Zoology & Entomology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0002, South Africa
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria 0110, South Africa
| | - Antoinette van Schalkwyk
- Agricultural Research Council-Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa
- Department of Biotechnology, University of the Western Cape, Bellville 7535, South Africa
| | - Juanita van Emmenes
- Agricultural Research Council-Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa
| | - Livio Heath
- Agricultural Research Council-Onderstepoort Veterinary Institute, Onderstepoort 0110, South Africa
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Hakizimana JN, Yona C, Makange MR, Kasisi EA, Netherton CL, Nauwynck H, Misinzo G. Complete genome analysis of African swine fever virus genotypes II, IX and XV from domestic pigs in Tanzania. Sci Rep 2023; 13:5318. [PMID: 37002287 PMCID: PMC10066019 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-32625-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023] Open
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF) caused by ASF virus (ASFV) is an infectious transboundary animal disease notifiable to the World Organization for Animal Health causing high mortality in domestic pigs and wild boars threatening the global domestic pig industry. To date, twenty-four ASFV genotypes have been described and currently genotypes II, IX, X, XV and XVI are known to be circulating in Tanzania. Despite the endemic status of ASF in Tanzania, only one complete genome of ASFV from the country has been described. This study describes the first complete genome sequence of ASFV genotype XV. In addition, the first Tanzanian complete genome of ASFV genotype IX and three ASFV strains belonging to genotype II collected during ASF outbreaks in domestic pigs in Tanzania were determined in this study using Illumina sequencing and comparative genomics analysis. The generated ASFV complete genome sequences ranged from 171,004 to 184,521 base pairs in length with an average GC content of 38.53% and encoded 152 to 187 open reading frames. The results of this study provide insights into the genomic structure of ASFV and can be used to monitor changes within the ASFV genome and improve our understanding of ASF transmission dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean N Hakizimana
- OR Tambo Africa Research Chair for Viral Epidemics, SACIDS Foundation for One Health, Sokoine University of Agriculture, PO Box 3297, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Clara Yona
- OR Tambo Africa Research Chair for Viral Epidemics, SACIDS Foundation for One Health, Sokoine University of Agriculture, PO Box 3297, Morogoro, Tanzania
- Department of Biosciences, Solomon Mahlangu College of Natural and Applied Sciences, Sokoine University of Agriculture, PO Box 3038, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Mariam R Makange
- OR Tambo Africa Research Chair for Viral Epidemics, SACIDS Foundation for One Health, Sokoine University of Agriculture, PO Box 3297, Morogoro, Tanzania
- SACIDS Africa Centre of Excellence for Infectious Diseases, SACIDS Foundation for One Health, Sokoine University of Agriculture, PO Box 3297, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Ester A Kasisi
- OR Tambo Africa Research Chair for Viral Epidemics, SACIDS Foundation for One Health, Sokoine University of Agriculture, PO Box 3297, Morogoro, Tanzania
| | - Christopher L Netherton
- African Swine Fever Vaccinology Group, The Pirbright Institute, Ash Road, Pirbright, Woking, GU24 0NF, Surrey, UK
| | - Hans Nauwynck
- Laboratory of Virology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Gerald Misinzo
- OR Tambo Africa Research Chair for Viral Epidemics, SACIDS Foundation for One Health, Sokoine University of Agriculture, PO Box 3297, Morogoro, Tanzania.
- SACIDS Africa Centre of Excellence for Infectious Diseases, SACIDS Foundation for One Health, Sokoine University of Agriculture, PO Box 3297, Morogoro, Tanzania.
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Parasitology and Biotechnology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Sokoine University of Agriculture, PO Box 3019, Morogoro, Tanzania.
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Zhang Y, Wang Q, Zhu Z, Wang S, Tu S, Zhang Y, Zou Y, Liu Y, Liu C, Ren W, Zheng D, Zhao Y, Hu Y, Li L, Shi C, Ge S, Lin P, Xu F, Ma J, Wu X, Ma H, Wang Z, Bao J. Tracing the Origin of Genotype II African Swine Fever Virus in China by Genomic Epidemiology Analysis. Transbound Emerg Dis 2023. [DOI: 10.1155/2023/4820809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/03/2023]
Abstract
The pandemic spread of African swine fever (ASF) has caused serious effects on the global pig industry. Virus genome sequencing and genomic epidemiology analysis play an important role in tracking the outbreaks of the disease and tracing the transmission of the virus. Here we obtained the full-length genome sequence of African swine fever virus (ASFV) in the first outbreak of ASF in China on August 3rd, 2018 and compared it with other published genotype II ASFV genomes including 9 genomes collected in China from September 2018 to October 2020. Phylogenetic analysis on genomic sequences revealed that genotype II ASFV has evolved into different genetic clusters with temporal and spatial correlation since being introduced into Europe and then Asia. There was a strong support for the monophyletic grouping of all the ASFV genome sequences from China and other Asian countries, which shared a common ancestor with those from the Central or Eastern Europe. An evolutionary rate of 1.312 × 10−5 nucleotide substitutions per site per year was estimated for genotype II ASFV genomes. Eight single nucleotide variations which located in MGF110-1L, MGF110-7L, MGF360-10L, MGF505-5R, MGF505-9R, K145R, NP419L, and I267L were identified as anchor mutations that defined genetic clusters of genotype II ASFV in Europe and Asia. This study expanded our knowledge of the molecular epidemiology of ASFV and provided valuable information for effective control of the disease.
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Hyeon JY, Tseren-Ochir EO, Lee DH, Nahm SS, Gladue DP, Borca MV, Song CS, Risatti GR. Whole genome sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of African swine fever virus detected in a backyard pig in Mongolia, 2019. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1094052. [PMID: 36891469 PMCID: PMC9986476 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1094052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF) is a highly contagious and fatal disease affecting domestic and wild pigs caused by the African swine fever virus (ASFV). Since the first outbreak in China in August 2018, ASF has spread rapidly in Asia. and the first case in Mongolia was confirmed in January 2019. In this study, we report the first whole genome sequence of an ASFV (ASFV SS-3/Mongolia/2019) detected from a backyard pig in Mongolia in February 2019 using whole genome sequencing. We analyzed their phylogenetic relationship with other genotype II ASFVs from Eurasia. The ASFV SS-3/Mongolia/2019 belonged to genotype II (p72 and p54), serogroup 8 (CD2v), Tet-10a variant (pB602L), and IGRIII variant (intergenic region between the I73R/I329L genes). A total of five amino acid substitutions were observed in MGF 360-10L, MGF 505-4R, MGF 505-9R, NP419L, and I267L genes compared to the ASFV Georgia 2007/1 virus. ML phylogenetic analysis of the whole genome sequence showed that the virus shares a high nucleotide sequence identity with ASFVs recently identified in Eastern Europe and Asia and clustered with the ASFV/Zabaykali/WB5314/2020|Russia|2020 virus which was identified at the border between the Russian Federation and Mongolia in 2020. Our results suggest that trans boundary spread of ASF occurred through close geographic proximity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji-Yeon Hyeon
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Erdene-Ochir Tseren-Ochir
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Mongolian University of Life Sciences, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
| | - Dong-Hun Lee
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sang-Soep Nahm
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Douglas P. Gladue
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agriculture Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, Greenport, NY, United States
| | - Manuel V. Borca
- Plum Island Animal Disease Center, Agriculture Research Service, US Department of Agriculture, Greenport, NY, United States
| | - Chang-Seon Song
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- KCAV Co., Ltd., Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Guillermo R. Risatti
- Department of Pathobiology and Veterinary Science, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, United States
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Vlasov ME, Sindryakova IP, Kudrjashov DA, Morgunov SY, Kolbasova OL, Lyska VM, Zhivoderov SP, Pivova EY, Balyshev VM, Sereda AD, Kolbasov DV. Inoculation with ASFV-Katanga-350 Partially Protects Pigs from Death during Subsequent Infection with Heterologous Type ASFV-Stavropol 01/08. Viruses 2023; 15:v15020430. [PMID: 36851644 PMCID: PMC9959532 DOI: 10.3390/v15020430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
African swine fever virus (ASFV) is an extremely genetically and phenotypically heterogeneous pathogen. Previously, we have demonstrated that experimental inoculation of pigs with an attenuated strain, Katanga-350 (genotype I, seroimmunotype I) (ASFV-Katanga-350), can induce protective immunity in 80% of European domestic pigs against the homologous virulent European strain Lisbon-57. At least 50% of the surviving pigs received protection from subsequent intramuscular infection with a heterologous virulent strain, Stavropol 01/08 (genotype II, seroimmunotype VIII) (ASFV-Stavropol 01/08). In this study, we assessed clinical signs, the levels of viremia, viral DNA, anti-ASFV antibodies and post-mortem changes caused by subsequent intramuscular injection with ASFV-Katanga-350 and heterologous ASFV-Stavropol 01/08. Inoculation of pigs with the ASFV-Katanga-350 did not protect animals from the disease in the case of the subsequent challenged ASFV-Stavropol 01/08. However, 40% of pigs were protected from death. Moreover, the surviving animals showed no pathomorphological changes or the presence of an infectious virus in the organs after euthanasia at 35 days post challenging. The ability/inability of attenuated strains to form a certain level of protection against heterologous isolates needs a theoretical background and experimental confirmation.
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Kim G, Park JE, Kim SJ, Kim Y, Kim W, Kim YK, Jheong W. Complete genome analysis of the African swine fever virus isolated from a wild boar responsible for the first viral outbreak in Korea, 2019. Front Vet Sci 2023; 9:1080397. [PMID: 36713858 PMCID: PMC9875005 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.1080397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
African swine fever (ASF), a highly contagious and severe hemorrhagic viral disease in swine, is emerging as a major threat not only in Korea but also worldwide. The first confirmed case of ASF in Korea was reported in 2019. Despite the occurrence of ASF in Korea, only a few studies have genetically characterized the causative ASF virus (ASFV). In this study, we aimed to genetically characterize the ASFV responsible for the 2019 outbreak in Korea. The genome of the ASFV isolated during the first outbreak in Korea was analyzed. The Korea/YC1/2019 strain has 188,950 base pairs, with a GC content of 38.4%. The complete genome sequence was compared with other ASFV genomes annotated in the NCBI database. The Korea/YC1/2019 strain shared the highest similarity with Georgia 2007, Belgium 2018/1, and ASFV-wbBS01 strains. This study expands our knowledge of the genetic diversity of ASFV, providing valuable information for epidemiology, diagnostics, therapies, and vaccine development.
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Bao J, Zhang Y, Shi C, Wang Q, Wang S, Wu X, Cao S, Xu F, Wang Z. Genome-Wide Diversity Analysis of African Swine Fever Virus Based on a Curated Dataset. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12182446. [PMID: 36139306 PMCID: PMC9495133 DOI: 10.3390/ani12182446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2022] [Revised: 09/11/2022] [Accepted: 09/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary African swine fever (ASF) is one of the most important animal diseases affecting the domestic swine population globally. Whole-genome sequence analysis on the circulating African swine fever virus (ASFV) strains would provide valuable information in tracking the outbreaks of the disease. The aim of this study was to prepare a curated dataset of ASFV genome sequences and investigate genome-wide diversity of circulating ASFV strains. We prepared a curated dataset containing 123 high-quality ASFV genome sequences representing 10 genotypes collected from 28 countries between 1949 and 2020. Phylogenetic analysis based on whole-genome sequences provided high-resolution topology in genotyping ASFV isolates, which was supported by pairwise genome sequence similarity comparison. Wide distribution and high variation of tandem repeat sequences were found in ASFV genomes. Structural variation and highly variable poly G or poly C tracts were also identified. This study improved our understanding on the patterns of genetic variation of ASFV and facilitated future studies on ASFV molecular epidemiology. Abstract African swine fever (ASF) is a lethal contagious viral disease of domestic pigs and wild boars caused by the African swine fever virus (ASFV). The pandemic spread of ASF has had serious effects on the global pig industry. Virus genome sequencing and comparison play an important role in tracking the outbreaks of the disease and tracing the transmission of the virus. Although more than 140 ASFV genome sequences have been deposited in the public databases, the genome-wide diversity of ASFV remains unclear. Here we prepared a curated dataset of ASFV genome sequences by filtering genomes with sequencing errors as well as duplicated genomes. A total of 123 ASFV genome sequences were included in the dataset, representing 10 genotypes collected between 1949 and 2020. Phylogenetic analysis based on whole-genome sequences provided high-resolution topology in differentiating closely related ASFV isolates, and drew new clues in the classification of some ASFV isolates. Genome-wide diversity of ASFV genomes was explored by pairwise sequence similarity comparison and ORF distribution comparison. Tandem repeat sequences were found widely distributed and highly varied in ASFV genomes. Structural variation and highly variable poly G or poly C tracts also contributed to the genome diversity. This study expanded our knowledge on the patterns of genetic diversity and evolution of ASFV, and provided valuable information for diagnosis improvement and vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingyue Bao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao 266032, China
| | - Yong Zhang
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao 266032, China
- Lars Bolund Institute of Regenerative Medicine, Qingdao-Europe Advanced Institute for Life Sciences, BGI-Qingdao, BGI-Shenzhen, Qingdao 266555, China
- College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 518083, China
| | - Chuan Shi
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao 266032, China
- College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 518083, China
- BGI-Qingdao, BGI-Shenzhen, Qingdao 266555, China
| | - Qinghua Wang
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao 266032, China
| | - Shujuan Wang
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao 266032, China
| | - Xiaodong Wu
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao 266032, China
| | - Shengbo Cao
- State Key Laboratory of Agricultural Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Fengping Xu
- Lars Bolund Institute of Regenerative Medicine, Qingdao-Europe Advanced Institute for Life Sciences, BGI-Qingdao, BGI-Shenzhen, Qingdao 266555, China
- College of Life Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 518083, China
- Correspondence: (F.X.); (Z.W.)
| | - Zhiliang Wang
- China Animal Health and Epidemiology Center, Qingdao 266032, China
- Correspondence: (F.X.); (Z.W.)
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