1
|
Naz T, Ullah S, Nazir Y, Li S, Iqbal B, Liu Q, Mohamed H, Song Y. Industrially Important Fungal Carotenoids: Advancements in Biotechnological Production and Extraction. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:jof9050578. [PMID: 37233289 DOI: 10.3390/jof9050578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Revised: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Carotenoids are lipid-soluble compounds that are present in nature, including plants and microorganisms such as fungi, certain bacteria, and algae. In fungi, they are widely present in almost all taxonomic classifications. Fungal carotenoids have gained special attention due to their biochemistry and the genetics of their synthetic pathway. The antioxidant potential of carotenoids may help fungi survive longer in their natural environment. Carotenoids may be produced in greater quantities using biotechnological methods than by chemical synthesis or plant extraction. The initial focus of this review is on industrially important carotenoids in the most advanced fungal and yeast strains, with a brief description of their taxonomic classification. Biotechnology has long been regarded as the most suitable alternative way of producing natural pigment from microbes due to their immense capacity to accumulate these pigments. So, this review mainly presents the recent progress in the genetic modification of native and non-native producers to modify the carotenoid biosynthetic pathway for enhanced carotenoid production, as well as factors affecting carotenoid biosynthesis in fungal strains and yeast, and proposes various extraction methods to obtain high yields of carotenoids in an attempt to find suitable greener extraction methods. Finally, a brief description of the challenges regarding the commercialization of these fungal carotenoids and the solution is also given.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tahira Naz
- Colin Ratledge Center for Microbial Lipids, College of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255000, China
| | - Samee Ullah
- Colin Ratledge Center for Microbial Lipids, College of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255000, China
- Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, University Institute of Food Science and Technology, The University of Lahore, Lahore 54000, Pakistan
| | - Yusuf Nazir
- Colin Ratledge Center for Microbial Lipids, College of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255000, China
- Department of Food Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia
- Innovation Centre for Confectionery Technology (MANIS), Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia
| | - Shaoqi Li
- Colin Ratledge Center for Microbial Lipids, College of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255000, China
| | - Bushra Iqbal
- Colin Ratledge Center for Microbial Lipids, College of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255000, China
| | - Qing Liu
- Colin Ratledge Center for Microbial Lipids, College of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255000, China
| | - Hassan Mohamed
- Colin Ratledge Center for Microbial Lipids, College of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255000, China
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Assiut 71524, Egypt
| | - Yuanda Song
- Colin Ratledge Center for Microbial Lipids, College of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo 255000, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Khan MF, Murphy CD. Nitroreduction of flutamide by Cunninghamella elegans NADPH: Cytochrome P450 reductase. Biochem Biophys Rep 2022; 29:101209. [PMID: 35097225 PMCID: PMC8783101 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrep.2022.101209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Revised: 01/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The microbial model of mammalian drug metabolism, Cunninghamella elegans, has three cytochrome P450 reductase genes in its genome: g1631 (CPR_A), g4301 (CPR_B), and g7609 (CPR_C). The nitroreductase activity of the encoded enzymes was investigated via expression of the genes in the yeast Pichia pastoris X33. Whole cell assays with the recombinant yeast demonstrated that the reductases converted the anticancer drug flutamide to the nitroreduced metabolite that was also produced from the same substrate when incubated with human NADPH: cytochrome P450 reductase. The nitroreductase activity extended to other substrates such as the related drug nilutamide and the environmental contaminants 1-nitronaphthalene and 1,3-dinitronaphthalene. Comparative experiments with cell lysates of recombinant yeast were conducted under aerobic and reduced oxygen conditions and demonstrated that the reductases are oxygen sensitive. Three cytochrome P450 reductase genes from Cunninghamella elegans were heterologously expressed in Pichia pastoris. TThe enzymes displayed nitroreductase activity towards flutamide, which is analogous to human cytochrome P450 reductase. The enzymes are oxygen sensitive, which is also a property shared with the human enzyme. Other nitro-containing substrates can be reduced by the fungal enzymes.
Collapse
|
3
|
Recent Molecular Tools for the Genetic Manipulation of Highly Industrially Important Mucoromycota Fungi. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:jof7121061. [PMID: 34947043 PMCID: PMC8705501 DOI: 10.3390/jof7121061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Revised: 11/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Mucorales is the largest and most well-studied order of the phylum Mucormycota and is known for its rapid growth rate and various industrial applications. The Mucorales fungi are a fascinating group of filamentous organisms with many uses in research and the industrial and medical fields. They are widely used biotechnological producers of various secondary metabolites and other value-added products. Certain members of Mucorales are extensively used as model organisms for genetic and molecular investigation and have extended our understanding of the metabolisms of other members of this order as well. Compared with other fungal species, our understanding of Mucoralean fungi is still in its infancy, which could be linked to their lack of effective genetic tools. However, recent advancements in molecular tools and approaches, such as the construction of recyclable markers, silencing vectors, and the CRISPR-Cas9-based gene-editing system, have helped us to modify the genomes of these model organisms. Multiple genetic modifications have been shown to generate valuable products on a large scale and helped us to understand the morphogenesis, basic biology, pathogenesis, and host–pathogen interactions of Mucoralean fungi. In this review, we discuss various conventional and modern genetic tools and approaches used for efficient gene modification in industrially important members of Mucorales.
Collapse
|
4
|
Powers MJ, Martz LD, Burton RS, Hill GE, Weaver RJ. Evidence for hybrid breakdown in production of red carotenoids in the marine invertebrate Tigriopus californicus. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0259371. [PMID: 34748608 PMCID: PMC8575244 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0259371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The marine copepod, Tigriopus californicus, produces the red carotenoid pigment astaxanthin from yellow dietary precursors. This ‘bioconversion’ of yellow carotenoids to red is hypothesized to be linked to individual condition, possibly through shared metabolic pathways with mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation. Experimental inter-population crosses of lab-reared T. californicus typically produces low-fitness hybrids is due in large part to the disruption of coadapted sets nuclear and mitochondrial genes within the parental populations. These hybrid incompatibilities can increase variability in life history traits and energy production among hybrid lines. Here, we tested if production of astaxanthin was compromised in hybrid copepods and if it was linked to mitochondrial metabolism and offspring development. We observed no clear mitonuclear dysfunction in hybrids fed a limited, carotenoid-deficient diet of nutritional yeast. However, when yellow carotenoids were restored to their diet, hybrid lines produced less astaxanthin than parental lines. We observed that lines fed a yeast diet produced less ATP and had slower offspring development compared to lines fed a more complete diet of algae, suggesting the yeast-only diet may have obscured effects of mitonuclear dysfunction. Astaxanthin production was not significantly associated with development among lines fed a yeast diet but was negatively related to development in early generation hybrids fed an algal diet. In lines fed yeast, astaxanthin was negatively related to ATP synthesis, but in lines fed algae, the relationship was reversed. Although the effects of the yeast diet may have obscured evidence of hybrid dysfunction, these results suggest that astaxanthin bioconversion may still be related to mitochondrial performance and reproductive success.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J. Powers
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States of America
- * E-mail: (MJP); (LDM)
| | - Lucas D. Martz
- University of California, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, San Diego, CA, United States of America
- * E-mail: (MJP); (LDM)
| | - Ronald S. Burton
- University of California, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, San Diego, CA, United States of America
| | - Geoffrey E. Hill
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL, United States of America
| | - Ryan J. Weaver
- Ecology, Evolution, and Organismal Biology Department, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Naz T, Yang J, Nosheen S, Sun C, Nazir Y, Mohamed H, Fazili ABA, Ullah S, Li S, Yang W, Garre V, Song Y. Genetic Modification of Mucor circinelloides for Canthaxanthin Production by Heterologous Expression of β-carotene Ketolase Gene. Front Nutr 2021; 8:756218. [PMID: 34722614 PMCID: PMC8548569 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2021.756218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Canthaxanthin is a reddish-orange xanthophyll with strong antioxidant activity and higher bioavailability than carotenes, primarily used in food, cosmetics, aquaculture, and pharmaceutical industries. The spiking market for natural canthaxanthin promoted researchers toward genetic engineering of heterologous hosts for canthaxanthin production. Mucor circinelloides is a dimorphic fungus that produces β-carotene as the major carotenoid and is considered as a model organism for carotenogenic studies. In this study, canthaxanthin-producing M. circinelloides strain was developed by integrating the codon-optimized β-carotene ketolase gene (bkt) of the Haematococcus pluvialis into the genome of the fungus under the control of strong promoter zrt1. First, a basic plasmid was constructed to disrupt crgA gene, a negative regulator of carotene biosynthesis resulted in substantial β-carotene production, which served as the building block for canthaxanthin by further enzymatic reaction of the ketolase enzyme. The genetically engineered strain produced a significant amount (576 ± 28 μg/g) of canthaxanthin, which is the highest amount reported in Mucor to date. Moreover, the cell dry weight of the recombinant strain was also determined, producing up to more than 9.0 g/L, after 96 h. The mRNA expression level of bkt in the overexpressing strain was analyzed by RT-qPCR, which increased by 5.3-, 4.1-, and 3-folds at 24, 48, and 72 h, respectively, compared with the control strain. The canthaxanthin-producing M. circinelloides strain obtained in this study provided a basis for further improving the biotechnological production of canthaxanthin and suggested a useful approach for the construction of more valuable carotenoids, such as astaxanthin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tahira Naz
- Colin Ratledge Center for Microbial Lipids, School of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China
| | - Junhuan Yang
- Colin Ratledge Center for Microbial Lipids, School of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China
| | - Shaista Nosheen
- Colin Ratledge Center for Microbial Lipids, School of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China
| | - Caili Sun
- Colin Ratledge Center for Microbial Lipids, School of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China
| | - Yusuf Nazir
- Colin Ratledge Center for Microbial Lipids, School of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China.,Department of Food Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
| | - Hassan Mohamed
- Colin Ratledge Center for Microbial Lipids, School of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China.,Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Assiut, Egypt
| | - Abu Bakr Ahmad Fazili
- Colin Ratledge Center for Microbial Lipids, School of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China
| | - Samee Ullah
- Colin Ratledge Center for Microbial Lipids, School of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China.,University Institute of Diet and Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Allied Health Sciences, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Shaoqi Li
- Colin Ratledge Center for Microbial Lipids, School of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China
| | - Wu Yang
- Colin Ratledge Center for Microbial Lipids, School of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China
| | - Victoriano Garre
- Departamento de Genética y Microbiología (Unidad asociada al Instituto de Química Física Rocasolano-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IQFR-CSIC)), Facultad de Biología, Universidad de Murcia, Murcia, Spain
| | - Yuanda Song
- Colin Ratledge Center for Microbial Lipids, School of Agricultural Engineering and Food Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Mass spore production of Mucor circinelloides on rice. 3 Biotech 2021; 11:311. [PMID: 34109096 DOI: 10.1007/s13205-021-02853-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Mucor circinelloides is a fungus that produces diverse spores throughout its life cycle. The sporangiospores, which are the most well-studied spores in this fungus, are asexual spores produced during aerial mycelial development. M. circinelloides has the potential to be used in diverse biotechnological applications. In this study, we propose rice (Oryza sativa) grains as an alternative substrate for inexpensive and large-scale sporangiospore production. The sporangiospores produced from rice and a yeast extract-peptone-glucose (YPG) medium exhibited similar protein and nucleic acid contents and phenotypes in terms of germination under different conditions and culture media, including similar virulence rates against the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Transgenic strains carrying self-replicative plasmids were sporulated on rice and showed plasmid stability similar to that of spores produced on the YPG medium. Approximately 20% of the spore population lost plasmids after the first passage on rice. These results reveal that rice is a suitable substrate for the mass production of sporangiospores in M. circinelloides. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-021-02853-1.
Collapse
|
7
|
Powers MJ, Hill GE. A review and assessment of the Shared-Pathway Hypothesis for the maintenance of signal honesty in red ketocarotenoid-based coloration. Integr Comp Biol 2021; 61:1811-1826. [PMID: 33940618 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icab056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
For decades, scientists have noted connections between individual condition and carotenoid-based coloration in terrestrial and aquatic animals. Organisms that produce more vibrant carotenoid-based coloration tend to have better physiological performance and behavioral displays compared to less colorful members of the same species. Traditional explanations for this association between ornamental coloration and performance invoked the need for color displays to be costly, but evidence for such hypothesized costs is equivocal. An alternative explanation for the condition-dependence of carotenoid-based coloration, the Shared-Pathway Hypothesis, was developed in response. This hypothesis proposes that red ketocarotenoid-based coloration is tied to core cellular processes involving a shared pathway with mitochondrial energy metabolism, making the concentration of carotenoids an index of mitochondrial function. Since the presentation of this hypothesis, empirical tests of the mechanisms proposed therein have been conducted in many species. In this manuscript, we review the Shared-Pathway Hypothesis and the growing number of studies that have investigated a connection between carotenoid-based coloration and mitochondrial function. We also discuss future strategies for assessing the Shared-Pathway Hypothesis to more effectively disentangle evidence that may simultaneously support evidence of carotenoid-resource tradeoffs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Powers
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849 USA
| | - Geoffrey E Hill
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849 USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Rodrigues Reis CE, Bento HBS, Carvalho AKF, Rajendran A, Hu B, De Castro HF. Critical applications of Mucor circinelloides within a biorefinery context. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2019; 39:555-570. [PMID: 30931637 DOI: 10.1080/07388551.2019.1592104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The establishment of an efficient and feasible biorefinery model depends on, among other factors, particularly the selection of the most appropriate microorganism. Mucor circinelloides is a dimorphic fungus species able to produce a wide variety of hydrolytic enzymes, lipids prone to biodiesel production, carotenoids, ethanol, and biomass with significant nutritional value. M. circinelloides also has been selected as a model species for genetic modification by being the first filamentous oleaginous species to have its genome fully characterized, as well as being a species characterized as a potential bioremediation agent. Considering the potential of replacing several nonrenewable feedstocks is widely dependent on fossil fuels, the exploitation of microbial processes and products is a desirable solution for promoting a green and sustainable future. Here, we introduce and thoroughly describe the recent and critical applications of this remarkable fungus within the context of developing a fungal-based biorefinery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cristiano E Rodrigues Reis
- a Department of Chemical Engineering, Engineering School of Lorena , University of São Paulo , Lorena , São Paulo , Brazil
| | - Heitor B S Bento
- a Department of Chemical Engineering, Engineering School of Lorena , University of São Paulo , Lorena , São Paulo , Brazil
| | - Ana K F Carvalho
- a Department of Chemical Engineering, Engineering School of Lorena , University of São Paulo , Lorena , São Paulo , Brazil
| | - Aravindan Rajendran
- b Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering , University of Minnesota , Saint Paul , MN , USA
| | - Bo Hu
- b Department of Bioproducts and Biosystems Engineering , University of Minnesota , Saint Paul , MN , USA
| | - Heizir F De Castro
- a Department of Chemical Engineering, Engineering School of Lorena , University of São Paulo , Lorena , São Paulo , Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Morin-Sardin S, Nodet P, Coton E, Jany JL. Mucor: A Janus-faced fungal genus with human health impact and industrial applications. FUNGAL BIOL REV 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fbr.2016.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
|
10
|
Papp T, Nyilasi I, Csernetics Á, Nagy G, Takó M, Vágvölgyi C. Improvement of Industrially Relevant Biological Activities in Mucoromycotina Fungi. Fungal Biol 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-27951-0_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
|
11
|
Zhou Z, Zhang W, Su S, Chen M, Lu W, Lin M, Molnár I, Xu Y. CYP287A1 is a carotenoid 2-β-hydroxylase required for deinoxanthin biosynthesis in Deinococcus radiodurans R1. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2015; 99:10539-46. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-015-6910-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2015] [Revised: 07/24/2015] [Accepted: 08/01/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
|
12
|
Leiva K, Werner N, Sepúlveda D, Barahona S, Baeza M, Cifuentes V, Alcaíno J. Identification and functional characterization of the CYP51 gene from the yeast Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous that is involved in ergosterol biosynthesis. BMC Microbiol 2015; 15:89. [PMID: 25906980 PMCID: PMC4415319 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-015-0428-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2015] [Accepted: 04/17/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous is a basidiomycetous yeast that synthesizes astaxanthin, a carotenoid with great biotechnological impact. The ergosterol and carotenoid synthetic pathways derive from the mevalonate pathway and involve cytochrome P450 enzymes. Among these enzymes, the CYP51 family, which is involved in ergosterol biosynthesis, is one of the most remarkable that has C14-demethylase activity. RESULTS In this study, the CYP51 gene from X. dendrorhous was isolated and its function was analyzed. The gene is composed of ten exons and encodes a predicted 550 amino acid polypeptide that exhibits conserved cytochrome P450 structural characteristics and shares significant identity with the sterol C14-demethylase from other fungi. The functionality of this gene was confirmed by heterologous complementation in S. cerevisiae. Furthermore, a CYP51 gene mutation in X. dendrorhous reduced sterol production by approximately 40% and enhanced total carotenoid production by approximately 90% compared to the wild-type strain after 48 and 120 h of culture, respectively. Additionally, the CYP51 gene mutation in X. dendrorhous increased HMGR (hydroxy-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase, involved in the mevalonate pathway) and crtR (cytochrome P450 reductase) transcript levels, which could be associated with reduced ergosterol production. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that the CYP51 gene identified in X. dendrorhous encodes a functional sterol C14-demethylase that is involved in ergosterol biosynthesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kritsye Leiva
- Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas y Centro de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Las Palmeras 3425, Casilla 653, Ñuñoa, Santiago, Chile.
| | - Nicole Werner
- Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas y Centro de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Las Palmeras 3425, Casilla 653, Ñuñoa, Santiago, Chile.
| | - Dionisia Sepúlveda
- Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas y Centro de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Las Palmeras 3425, Casilla 653, Ñuñoa, Santiago, Chile.
| | - Salvador Barahona
- Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas y Centro de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Las Palmeras 3425, Casilla 653, Ñuñoa, Santiago, Chile.
| | - Marcelo Baeza
- Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas y Centro de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Las Palmeras 3425, Casilla 653, Ñuñoa, Santiago, Chile.
| | - Víctor Cifuentes
- Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas y Centro de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Las Palmeras 3425, Casilla 653, Ñuñoa, Santiago, Chile.
| | - Jennifer Alcaíno
- Departamento de Ciencias Ecológicas y Centro de Biotecnología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Chile, Las Palmeras 3425, Casilla 653, Ñuñoa, Santiago, Chile.
| |
Collapse
|