Fomitopsis betulina (formerly Piptoporus betulinus): the Iceman's polypore fungus with modern biotechnological potential

Cytotoxic activity of Fomitopsis betulina against normal and cancer cells - a comprehensive literature review

In recent years, there has been increasing interest in research on fungi, including Fomitopsis betulina, known for its potential therapeutic properties. The aim of this paper is to systematically review the literature on the cytotoxic effects of Fomitopsis betulina on normal and cancer cell lines. The review was conducted by searching PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science databases up to July 2024, using specific MeSH terms and keywords related to cytotoxicity, cancer cells, and normal cells. Articles were included if they investigated both cancer and normal cell cultures, reported IC50 values, and used validated cytotoxicity assays (e.g. MTT, LDH). Out of 450 articles screened, 5 met the inclusion criteria. The analysed studies demonstrated that Fomitopsis betulina extracts, particularly methanolic and ethanolic, exhibited selective cytotoxicity against cancer cells while having minimal impact on healthy cells. The strongest effects were observed in prostate cancer and melanoma cell lines. The cytotoxic effects were largely attributed to bioactive compounds such as triterpenes and glucans. Fomitopsis betulina extracts, particularly those derived from fruiting bodies and mycelial cultures, show promising cytotoxic properties against cancer cells, with limited impact on healthy cells. However, further research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms of action and to optimise extraction methods.

Mushroom against Cancer: Aqueous Extract of Fomitopsis betulina in Fight against Tumors

Background/Objectives: This study investigated the anticancer potential of an aqueous extract of the fungus Fomitopsis betulina. Methods: The study assessed the effect of the extract on nine cancer cell lines, including melanoma (LM-MEL-75), lung cancer (A549), and colorectal cancer (HT29, LoVo), and four normal cell lines. The cytotoxicity of the extract was evaluated using MTT, sulforhodamine-B (SRB), and clonogenic viability assays. Additionally, the study examined the effect of the extract on plant model organisms, garden cress (Lepidium sativum) and common onion (Allium cepa), to further investigate its biological activity. Results: The assays demonstrated selective cytotoxicity of the extract toward cancer cells, while sparing normal cells. The extract induced significant cytotoxic effects at lower concentrations in lung cancer, melanoma, and colon cancer cells, showing promise as a potential anticancer agent. The results also revealed that the extract inhibited seed germination and root growth, suggesting its potential to disrupt cell cycles and induce apoptosis. Conclusions: This study highlights the therapeutic potential of F. betulina and highlights the need for further research to identify the active ingredients and mechanisms underlying its anticancer effects.

Secondary Metabolites of Fomitopsis betulina: Chemical Structures, Biological Activity and Application Prospects

Fomitopsis betulina, as a macrofungus with both medicinal and dietary applications, is renowned for its rich content of bioactive substances. The recent advancements in research have significantly enhanced our understanding of its polysaccharides, cellulose-degrading enzymes, and wide range of secondary metabolites. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the artificial cultivation techniques and the chemical profiling of over 100 secondary metabolites identified in F. betulina, including terpenoids, phenols, and various other classes. These compounds exhibit notable pharmacological activities, such as anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antiviral, and anti-malarial effects. Moreover, this review delves into the genomic analysis of F. betulina, focusing on the prediction and classification of terpene synthases, which play a crucial role in the biosynthesis of these bioactive compounds. This insight is instrumental for potentially facilitating future biochemical studies and pharmaceutical applications. Through this review, we aim to solidify the foundation for future in-depth studies and the development of new drugs derived from this promising natural resource.

From Nature to Design: Tailoring Pure Mycelial Materials for the Needs of Tomorrow

Modern efforts to influence materials science with principles of biology have allowed fungal mycelial materials to take a foothold and develop novel solutions for the circular bioeconomy of tomorrow. However, recent studies have shown that the value of tomorrow's green materials is not determined simply by their environmental viability, but rather by their ability to make the polluting materials of today obsolete. With an inherently strong structure of chitin and β-glucan, the ever-adaptable mycelia of fungi can compete at the highest levels with a litany of materials from leather to polyurethane foam to paper to wood. There are significant efforts to optimize pure mycelial materials (PMMs) through the entire process of species and strain selection, mycelial growth, and fabrication. Indeed, the promising investigations of novel species demonstrate how the diversity of fungi can be leveraged to create uniquely specialized materials. This review aims to highlight PMMs' current trajectory, evaluate the successes in technology, and explore how these new materials can help shape a better tomorrow.

Antiproliferative and Antibacterial Activity of Polyporoid Fungi from Veracruz, Mexico

Polyporoid fungi represent a vast source of bioactive compounds with potential pharmacological applications. The importance of polyporoid fungi in traditional Chinese medicine has led to an extensive use of some species of Ganoderma for promoting health and longevity because their consumption is associated with several bioactivities. Nevertheless, bioactivity of some other members of the Polyporaceae family has also been reported. This work reports the antiproliferative and antibacterial activity of crude extracts obtained from fruiting bodies of polypore fungi collected from the central region of Veracruz, Mexico, aimed at understanding the diversity of polypore species with potential pharmacological applications. 29 collections were identified macro- and microscopically in 19 species of polyporoid fungi, belonging to 13 genera. The antiproliferative activity screening of extracts against solid tumor cell lines (A549, SW1573, HeLa, HBL-100, T-47D, WiDr) allow us to identify four extracts with strong bioactivity [half-maximal growth inhibition (GI50) ≤ 50 μg/mL]. After this, a phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequences from the ITS region obtained from bioactive specimens allowed us to identify three extracts as Pycnoporus sanguineus (GI50 = ≤ 10 μg/mL) and the fourth bioactive extract as Ganoderma oerstedii (GI50 = < 50 μg/mL. Likewise, extracts from P. sanguineus showed mild or moderate antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Xanthomonas albilineas. Bioprospecting studies of polyporoid fungi add to the knowledge of the diversity of macrofungi in Mexico and allow us to select one of the bioactive P. sanguineus to continue the pursuit of bioactive compounds through mycochemical studies.

Effects of Piptoporus betulinus Ethanolic Extract on the Proliferation and Viability of Melanoma Cells and Models of Their Cell Membranes

Piptoporus betulinus is a fungus known for its medicinal properties. It possesses antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer activity. In this study, several tests were performed to evaluate the cytotoxic effect of the ethanolic extract of Piptoporus betulinus on two melanoma human cell lines, WM115 primary and A375 metastatic cell lines, as well as Hs27 human skin fibroblasts. The extract proved to affect cancer cells in a dose-dependent manner, and at the same time showed a low cytotoxicity towards the normal cells. The total phenolic content (TPC) was determined spectrophotometrically by the Folin-Ciocalteu method (F-C), and the potential antioxidant activity was measured by ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assay. One of the active compounds in the extract is betulin. It was isolated and then its cytotoxic activity was compared to the results obtained from the Piptoporus betulinus extract. To further understand the mechanism of action of the extract's anticancer activity, tests on model cell membranes were conducted. A model membrane of a melanoma cell was designed and consisted of 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine, disialoganglioside-GD1a and cholesterol: DMPC:GD1a:chol (5:2:3 mole ratio). Changes in a Langmuir monolayer were observed and described based on Π-Amol isotherm and compressibility modulus changes. LB lipid bilayers were deposited on a hydrophilic gold substrate and analyzed by IR and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. Our study provides new data on the effect of Piptoporus betulinus extract on melanoma cells and its impact on the model of melanoma plasma membranes.

Life Cycle Assessment of Fungal-Based Composite Bricks

Fungal-based composites as substitutes for construction materials might represent a promising solution to reduce the environmental burdens of the building industry. Such composites can be produced biotechnologically through the cultivation of multicellular fungi that form dense mycelia whilst growing into and onto residual plant biomass from agriculture and forestry. As comprehensive environmental assessments are missing, this paper conducts a life cycle assessment for fungal-based composite bricks considering the categories of climate change, eutrophication, acidification, smog, water scarcity, and land use. Electricity for sterilization, incubation, and the drying process led to 81.4% of a total 0.494 total kg CO2 eq. for climate change and 58.7% of a total 9.39 × 10−4 kg SO2 eq. for acidification. Further, hemp shives and grain mix were identified as hotspots for eutrophication (77.7% of 6.02 × 10−4 kg PO4−3 eq.) and land use (81.8% of 19.4 kg Pt eq.). However, the use of hemp shives, rapeseed straw, or poplar wood chips did not differ in the environmental impacts. Further, lab-scale production was compared with industrial scale-up, which is mostly characterized by energy efficiency showing reduced impacts for all considered categories, e.g., a decrease of 68% in climate change. Recycling should be included in future studies as well as considering the use and end-of-life phase.

Flexible Fungal Materials: Shaping the Future

Fungi are a revolutionary, smart, and sustainable manufacturing platform that can be used to upcycle byproducts and wastes into flexible fungal materials (FFMs) such as chitin- and β-glucan-based foams, paper, and textiles. With highly adaptable manufacturing pathways, the efficiency and properties of these materials depend on the biomass source and fermentation method. Liquid substrates provide fast, upscalable, and compact production processes but are susceptible to contamination and are limited to paper-like materials for printing, wound dressings, and membranes. Solid-state fermentation is cheaper but struggles to deliver homogeneous fungal growth and is used to produce fungal foams for packaging, insulation, textiles, and leather substitutes. The broad range of applications and uses of biological organisms in materials hallmarks fungi as forerunners in improving environmental sustainability globally.

Cytotoxic triterpenoids and triterpene sugar esters from the medicinal mushroom Fomitopsis betulina

Thirteen undescribed 24-methylene lanostane triterpenoids, named polyporenic acids E-M and fomitosides L-O, as well as seventeen known analogues, were isolated from the fruiting bodies of the mushroom Fomitopsis betulina. Their structures were determined using 1D, 2D NMR, IR, and HRESIMS. Fomitoside L and fomitoside N exhibited cytotoxicity against HL60 leukemia cells (IC₅₀ = 15.8 and 23.7 μM, respectively). Among the known compounds, notable cytotoxicities against HL60 leukemia cells and selectivity with respect to MRC-5 healthy cells were noticed for dehydropachymic acid (IC₅₀ = 10.9 μM, SI 8.6), pachymic acid (IC₅₀ = 11.0 μM, SI 9.8), 3-epi-dehydrotumulosic acid (IC₅₀ = 19.9 μM, SI 5.8) and 12α-hydroxy-3α-(3'-hydroxy-4'-methoxycarbonyl-3'-methylbutyryloxy)-24-methyllanosta-8,24 (31)-dien-26-oic acid (IC₅₀ = 19.2 μM, SI 2.2).

Traditional medicinal plants in South Tyrol (northern Italy, southern Alps): biodiversity and use

BACKGROUND

Worldwide mountain regions are recognized as hotspots of ethnopharmacologically relevant species diversity. In South Tyrol (Southern Alps, Italy), and due to the region's high plant diversity and isolated population, a unique traditional botanical knowledge of medicinal plants has flourished, which traces its history back to prehistoric times. However, changes in rural life and culture may threaten this unique biodiversity and cultural heritage. Our study aims to collect and analyze information on native plants used in traditional folk medicine, focusing on the preservation of botanical and cultural diversity.

METHODS

Data were collected through a review of published material that documents traditionally used medicinal plants of South Tyrol in order to capture the total diversity of plants and their usage. We evaluated different parameters, comprising the ethnobotanicity index (EI), ethnophytonomic index (EPI), relative frequency of citation (RFC), red list status, and regional legislation with regard to the plant species.

RESULTS

A total of 276 species, including 3 mushrooms and 3 lichens, were identified. These belonged to 72 families, most frequently to the Asteraceae, Rosaceae, and Lamiaceae. The most frequently cited species were Hypericum perforatum L., Urtica dioica L., and Plantago lanceolata L. According to 12 ICPC-2 disease categories, the most frequently treated human health symptoms were from the digestive and respiratory systems as well as the skin. A total of 27 species were listed as endangered, of which 16 are not protected and two are now already extinct. Among the 59 predominantly alpine species, 11 species are restricted to the high altitudes of the Alps and may be threatened by global warming.

CONCLUSIONS

Our research revealed that the ethnobotanical richness of South Tyrol is among the highest in Italy and throughout the Alps. Nevertheless, it is evident that biodiversity and traditional knowledge have been heavily eroded. Furthermore, we point out particularly sensitive species that should be reconsidered for stronger protections in legal regulations.

Arsenic speciation in the bracket fungus Fomitopsis betulina from contaminated and pristine sites

Uptake, distribution and speciation of arsenic (As) were determined in the bracket fungus Fomitopsis betulina (previously Piptoporus betulinus), commonly known as the birch polypore, collected from a woodland adjacent to a highly contaminated former mine in the Southwest UK and at an uncontaminated site in Quebec, Canada, with no past or present mining activity. The fruiting body was divided into cap, centre and pores representing the top, middle and underside to identify trends in the distribution and transformation of As. Total As, determined by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), was approximately tenfold higher in the mushroom from the contaminated compared to the uncontaminated site. Overall, accumulation of As was low relative to values reported for some soil-dwelling species, with maximum levels of 1.6 mg/kg at the contaminated site. Arsenic speciation was performed on aqueous extracts via both anion and cation high-performance liquid chromatography-ICP-MS (HPLC-ICP-MS) and on whole dried samples using X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES) analysis. Seven As species were detected in F. betulina from the contaminated site by HPLC-ICP-MS: arsenite (As^III), arsenate (As^V), dimethylarsinate (DMA^V), methylarsonate (MA^V), trimethylarsine oxide (TMAO), tetramethylarsonium ion (Tetra) and trace levels of arsenobetaine (AB). The same As species were observed at the uncontaminated site with the exception of TMAO and Tetra. Arsenic species were localized throughout the fruiting body at the contaminated site, with the cap and pores containing a majority of As^V, only the cap containing TMAO, and the pores containing higher concentrations of DMA^V and MA^V as well as tetra and a trace of AB. XANES analysis demonstrated that the predominant form of As at the contaminated site was inorganic As^III coordinated with sulphur or oxygen and As^V coordinated with oxygen. This is the first account of arsenic speciation in F. betulina or any fungi of the family Fomitopsidaceae.

Formation of Decatrienones with a Pineapple-like Aroma from 1-13C-Acetate by Cell Cultures of the Birch Polypore, Fomitopsis betulina

During submerged cultivation, the edible basidiomycete Fomitopsis betulina (previously Piptoporus betulinus) developed a fruity odor, strongly reminding of pineapple. Olfactometric analysis showed that this impression was mainly caused by the two (5E/Z,7E,9)-decatrien-2-ones. At the time of maximum concentration on the 5th day, the (5E/5Z)-ratio was 94:6. Three hypotheses were experimentally examined to shed light onto the genesis of the uncommon volatiles: first, an indirect effect of agro-industrial side-streams, such as cabbage cuttings, supporting good growth; second, an unsaturated odd-numbered fatty acid precursor; and third, a polyketide-like pathway. In the presence of 1-¹³C- or 2-¹³C-acetate up to five acetates were incorporated into the molecular ions of the C10-body. Addition of 1-¹³C-pyruvate or 1-¹³C-lactate did not confirm an odd-numbered starter of the polyketide chain. None of the methylketones was found in pineapple or any other food before.

ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF FOMITOPSIS BETULINA CULTURAL LIQUID

The antibacterial activity of Fomitopsis betulina cultural liquid (native, native concentrated, lyophilized, dried) against standard bacteria (Escherichia coli АТСС 25922, Pseudomonas aeruginosa АТСС 27853, Staphylococcus aureus АТСС 25923), and clinical isolates (Acinetobacter baumannii 50/1496 MBL, A. baumannii 88/2995 MBL, E. coli 116/3196 KPC, Klebsiella pneumoniae 6/509 ESBL, AmpC, KPC, P. aeruginosa 99/3066 MBL, P. aeruginosa 125/3343 MBL, S. haemoliticus 22/824 MRSA, S. aureus 134/3569 MRCNS) has been evaluated by the serial dilutions method. The antibacterial activity of F. betulina against S. haemoliticus and A. baumannii has been found for the first time. All samples of F. betulina cultural liquid demonstrated the inhibitory effect against standard bacterial strains at the minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) ranging from >2.0 up to 18.75 mg/ml, and against multidrug-resistant clinical isolates with MBC from 7.8 up to 48.42 mg/ml. The dried F. betulina cultural liquid showed the highest antimicrobial activity against standard bacteria and clinical isolates, except A. baumannii 50/1496 MBL, while native concentrated cultural liquid was the most effective against this pathogen. The study showed that the antibacterial activity of the cultural liquid of F. betulina was improved by concentration and drying. The results obtained indicate that F. betulina cultural liquid contains alternative antimicrobial agents, useful for the treatment of bacterial diseases and might be a perspective substance for the pharmaceutical industries

Notes, outline and divergence times of Basidiomycota

The Basidiomycota constitutes a major phylum of the kingdom Fungi and is second in species numbers to the Ascomycota. The present work provides an overview of all validly published, currently used basidiomycete genera to date in a single document. An outline of all genera of Basidiomycota is provided, which includes 1928 currently used genera names, with 1263 synonyms, which are distributed in 241 families, 68 orders, 18 classes and four subphyla. We provide brief notes for each accepted genus including information on classification, number of accepted species, type species, life mode, habitat, distribution, and sequence information. Furthermore, three phylogenetic analyses with combined LSU, SSU, 5.8s, rpb1, rpb2, and ef1 datasets for the subphyla Agaricomycotina, Pucciniomycotina and Ustilaginomycotina are conducted, respectively. Divergence time estimates are provided to the family level with 632 species from 62 orders, 168 families and 605 genera. Our study indicates that the divergence times of the subphyla in Basidiomycota are 406–430 Mya, classes are 211–383 Mya, and orders are 99–323 Mya, which are largely consistent with previous studies. In this study, all phylogenetically supported families were dated, with the families of Agaricomycotina diverging from 27–178 Mya, Pucciniomycotina from 85–222 Mya, and Ustilaginomycotina from 79–177 Mya. Divergence times as additional criterion in ranking provide additional evidence to resolve taxonomic problems in the Basidiomycota taxonomic system, and also provide a better understanding of their phylogeny and evolution.

Antitumour effect of glucooligosaccharides obtained via hydrolysis of α-(1 → 3)-glucan from Fomitopsis betulina

Novel α-(1 → 3)-glucooligosaccharides (α-(1 → 3)-GOS) were prepared by acid hydrolysis of α-(1→ 3)-glucan isolated from Fomitopsis betulina fruiting bodies and characterized. Their anti-cancer potential was evaluated in in vitro assays in a colon cancer cell model. The tested α-(1 → 3)-GOS showed antiproliferative (MTT assay) and pro-apoptotic (Annexin V-FITC and PI technique) features against colon cancer but not against normal epithelial colon cells. Additionally, we did not observe cytotoxic activity (neutral red and lactate dehydrogenase assays) of α-(1 → 3)-GOS against several types of normal cell lines. In the present study, we demonstrated the anticancer potential of α-(1 → 3)-GOS in a colon carcinoma model. The anti-tumour effect of α-(1 → 3)-GOS is related with induction of apoptosis. Based on these results, we conclude that α-(1 → 3)-GOS may be considered as a dietary or therapeutic agent with an ability to inhibit the growth of cancer cells.

Lanostane-type C31 triterpenoid derivatives from the fruiting bodies of cultivated Fomitopsis palustris

Fifteen undescribed and five known lanostane-type C₃₁ triterpenoid derivatives were isolated from the aqueous EtOH extract of the fruiting bodies of cultivated Fomitopsis palustris. Their structures were identified from the spectroscopic data and chemical degradation studies. The structures of palustrisoic acids A and H were confirmed by X-ray crystallography. Polyporenic acid B showed strong cytotoxicity against the HCT116, A549, and HepG2 cell lines with IC₅₀ values of 8.4, 12.1, and 12.2 μM, respectively. Palustrisolides A, C, and G displayed weak cytotoxicity.