TD/GC-MS analysis of volatile markers emitted from mono- and co-cultures of Enterobacter cloacae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in artificial sputum

Rapid differentiation of cystic fibrosis-related bacteria via reagentless atmospheric pressure photoionisation mass spectrometry

Breath analysis is an area of significant interest in medical research as it allows for non-invasive sampling with exceptional potential for disease monitoring and diagnosis. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) found in breath can offer critical insight into a person's lifestyle and/or disease/health state. To this end, the development of a rapid, sensitive, cost-effective and potentially portable method for the detection of key compounds in breath would mark a significant advancement. Herein, we have designed, built and tested a novel reagent-less atmospheric pressure photoionisation (APPI) source, coupled with mass spectrometry (MS), utilising a bespoke bias electrode within a custom 3D printed sampling chamber for direct analysis of VOCs. Optimal APPI-MS conditions were identified, including bias voltage, cone voltage and vaporisation temperature. Calibration curves were produced for ethanol, acetone, 2-butanone, ethyl acetate and eucalyptol, yielding R2 > 0.99 and limits of detection < 10 pg. As a pre-clinical proof of concept, this method was applied to bacterial headspace samples of Escherichia coli (EC), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PSA) and Staphylococcus aureus (SA) collected in 1 L Tedlar bags. In particular, PSA and SA are commonly associated with lung infection in cystic fibrosis patients. The headspace samples were classified using principal component analysis with 86.9% of the total variance across the first three components and yielding 100% classification in a blind-sample study. All experiments conducted with the novel APPI arrangement were carried out directly in real-time with low-resolution MS, which opens up exciting possibilities in the future for on-site (e.g., in the clinic) analysis with a portable system.

Modern approaches for detection of volatile organic compounds in metabolic studies focusing on pathogenic bacteria: Current state of the art

Pathogenic microorganisms produce numerous metabolites, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Monitoring these metabolites in biological matrices (e.g., urine, blood, or breath) can reveal the presence of specific microorganisms, enabling the early diagnosis of infections and the timely implementation of targeted therapy. However, complex matrices only contain trace levels of VOCs, and their constituent components can hinder determination of these compounds. Therefore, modern analytical techniques enabling the non-invasive identification and precise quantification of microbial VOCs are needed. In this paper, we discuss bacterial VOC analysis under in vitro conditions, in animal models and disease diagnosis in humans, including techniques for offline and online analysis in clinical settings. We also consider the advantages and limitations of novel microextraction techniques used to prepare biological samples for VOC analysis, in addition to reviewing current clinical studies on bacterial volatilomes that address inter-species interactions, the kinetics of VOC metabolism, and species- and drug-resistance specificity.

Biocontrol potential of volatile organic compounds produced by Streptomyces corchorusii CG-G2 to strawberry anthracnose caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is a fungal disease of strawberry fruit. Biocontrol strategies holds tremendous promise in alleviating fruit decay. Here, 30 actinomycetes were isolated from rhizosphere soil of Calotropis gigantea. A strain labeled with CG-G2 exhibited the strongest antagonistic activity against C. gloeosporioides and was assigned as Streptomyces corchorusii. Compared to strain CG-G2 extracts, the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) had a high antifungal activity against anthracnose. These volatiles effectively inhibited mycelial growth and spore germination of C. gloeosporioides. The hyphal and conidial structure was severely destroyed. Metabolomics analysis revealed that VOCs inhibited C. gloeosporioides via inducing flavonoids metabolism contributing to antifungal activity. Three main antagonistic compounds in VOCs were identified as methyl 2-methyl butyrate, hexanenitrile and methyl 2-Ethyl hexanoate. Especially, methyl 2-methyl butyrate demonstrated a remarkable efficacy in inhibiting fruit decay and preserving fruit quality. Hence, S. corchorusii CG-G2 will be a potential biocontrol agent for controlling anthracnose on harvested fruits.

Qualitative and quantitative rapid detection of VOCs differentially released by VAP-associated bacteria using PTR-MS and FGC-PTR-MS

Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) is a prevalent disease caused by microbial infection, resulting in significant morbidity and mortality within the intensive care unit (ICU). The rapid and accurate identification of pathogenic bacteria causing VAP can assist clinicians in formulating timely treatment plans. In this study, we attempted to differentiate bacterial species in VAP by utilizing the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) released by pathogens. We cultured 6 common bacteria in VAP in vitro, including Acinetobacter baumannii, Enterobacter cloacae, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, and Staphylococcus aureus, which covered most cases of VAP infection in clinic. After the VOCs released by bacteria were collected in sampling bags, they were quantitatively detected by a proton transfer reaction-mass spectrometry (PTR-MS), and the characteristic ions were qualitatively analyzed through a fast gas chromatography-proton transfer reaction-mass spectrometry (FGC-PTR-MS). After conducting principal component analysis (PCA) and analysis of similarities (ANOSIM), we discovered that the VOCs released by 6 bacteria exhibited differentiation following 3 h of quantitative cultivation in vitro. Additionally, we further investigated the variations in the types and concentrations of bacterial VOCs. The results showed that by utilizing the differences in types of VOCs, 6 bacteria could be classified into 5 sets, except for A. baumannii and E. cloacae which were indistinguishable. Furthermore, we observed significant variations in the concentration ratio of acetaldehyde and methyl mercaptan released by A. baumannii and E. cloacae. In conclusion, the VOCs released by bacteria could effectively differentiate the 6 pathogens commonly associated with VAP, which was expected to assist doctors in formulating treatment plans in time and improve the survival rate of patients.

Human tear metabolites associated with nucleoside-signalling pathways in bacterial keratitis

OBJECTIVE

The study aimed to profile and quantify tear metabolites associated with bacterial keratitis using both untargeted and targeted metabolomic platforms.

METHODS

Untargeted metabolomic analysis using liquid-chromatography-Q Exactive-HF mass-spectrometry explored tear metabolites significantly associated with bacterial keratitis (n = 6) compared to healthy participants (n = 6). Differential statistics and principal component analysis determined meaningful metabolite differences between cases and controls. Purines and nucleosides were further quantified and compared between 15 cases and 15 controls in the targeted metabolomic platform using TSQ quantum access triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. Compound quantification was done by plotting the calibration curves and the difference in the compound levels was evaluated using the Wilcoxon rank-sum test.

RESULTS

In the untargeted analysis, 49 tear metabolites (27 upregulated and 22 downregulated) were differentially expressed between cases and controls. The untargeted analysis indicated that the purine metabolism pathway was the most affected by bacterial keratitis. Metabolite quantification in the targeted analysis further confirmed the upregulation of xanthine (P = 0.02) and downregulation of adenine (P < 0.0001), adenosine (P < 0.0001) and cytidine (P < 0.0001) in the tears of participants with bacterial keratitis compared to that of healthy participants.

CONCLUSIONS

Bacterial keratitis significantly changes the tear metabolite profile, including five major compound classes such as indoles, amino acids, nucleosides, carbohydrates, and steroids. This study also indicates that tear fluids can be used to map the metabolic pathways and uncover metabolic markers associated with bacterial keratitis. Conceivably, the inhibition of nucleoside synthesis may contribute to the pathophysiology of bacterial keratitis because nucleosides are required for maintaining cellular energy homeostasis and immune adaptability.

The role of proteomics and metabolomics in severe infections

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Severe infections are a common cause of ICU admission, with a high morbidity and mortality. Omics, namely proteomics and metabolomics, aim to identify, characterize, and quantify biological molecules to achieve a systems-level understanding of disease. The aim of this review is to provide a clear overview of the current evidence of the role of proteomics and metabolomics in severe infections.

RECENT FINDINGS

Proteomics and metabolomics are technologies that are being used to explore new markers of diagnosis and prognosis, clarify mechanisms of disease, and consequently discover potential targets of therapy and finally of a better disease phenotyping. These technologies are starting to be used but not yet in clinical use.

SUMMARY

Our traditional way of approaching the disease as sepsis is believing that a process can be broken into its parts and that the whole can be explained by the sum of each part. This approach is highly reductionist and does not take the system complexity nor the nonlinear dynamics of the processes. Proteomics and metabolomics allow the analysis of several proteins and metabolites simultaneously, thereby generating diagnostic and prognostic signatures. An exciting future prospect for proteomics and metabolomics is their employment towards precision medicine.

Antifungal Activity of Endophytic Bacillus K1 Against Botrytis cinerea

Gray mold caused by Botrytis cinerea is detrimental to plants and fruits. Endophytes have been shown to modify plant disease severity in functional assays. We conducted this study to investigate the endophytic strain Bacillus K1 with excellently antagonistic B. cinerea from the wild grape endosphere. We identified a wild grape endophytic strain K1 with high antifungal activity against B. cinerea both in vitro and in vivo. Combining the phylogenetic results based on 16S rDNA and genome sequencing, K1 was assigned as Bacillus subtilis. The in vitro results displayed that K1 and its volatile substances could significantly inhibit the mycelia growth of B. cinerea. Grape fruit inoculated with Bacillus K1 showed lower gray mold during treatment. The higher levels of defense-related enzymes, including peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, and phenylalanine ammonia lyase, were induced in grapes after inoculation. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) suggested that K1 inhibited mycelial growth via bacterial colonization and antibiosis in grapes. The gas chromatography–mass spectrometry analysis identified 33 volatiles in which dibutyl phthalate was the major compound accounting for 74.28%. Dibutyl phthalate demonstrated strong activity in suppressing the mycelia growth of B. cinerea. Genome bioinformatics analysis revealed that the K1 chromosome harbored many known biosynthesis gene clusters encoding subtilosin, bacillaene, bacillibactin, bacilysin, and fengycin. This study provides a potential biological agent to control diseases of post-harvest grape fruit and improves our understanding of the possible biocontrol mechanisms of the Bacillus strain.

Air Ambulance: Antimicrobial Power of Bacterial Volatiles

We are currently facing an antimicrobial resistance crisis, which means that a lot of bacterial pathogens have developed resistance to common antibiotics. Hence, novel and innovative solutions are urgently needed to combat resistant human pathogens. A new source of antimicrobial compounds could be bacterial volatiles. Volatiles are ubiquitous produced, chemically divers and playing essential roles in intra- and interspecies interactions like communication and antimicrobial defense. In the last years, an increasing number of studies showed bioactivities of bacterial volatiles, including antibacterial, antifungal and anti-oomycete activities, indicating bacterial volatiles as an exciting source for novel antimicrobial compounds. In this review we introduce the chemical diversity of bacterial volatiles, their antimicrobial activities and methods for testing this activity. Concluding, we discuss the possibility of using antimicrobial volatiles to antagonize the antimicrobial resistance crisis.

Bacterial Long-Range Warfare: Aerial Killing of Legionella pneumophila by Pseudomonas fluorescens

Legionella pneumophila, the causative agent of Legionnaires’ disease, is mostly found in man-made water systems and is one of the most closely monitored waterborne pathogens. With the aim of finding natural ways to control waterborne pathogens and thus further reduce the impact of disinfection by-products on human health, some studies have demonstrated the ability of bacteria to kill Legionella through the production of secondary metabolites or antimicrobial compounds. Here, we describe an unexpected growth inhibition of L. pneumophila when exposed to a physically separated strain of Pseudomonas fluorescens, designated as MFE01. Most of the members of the Legionellaceae family are sensitive to the volatile substances emitted by MFE01, unlike other bacteria tested. Using headspace solid-phase microextraction GC-MS strategy, a volatilome comparison revealed that emission of 1-undecene, 2-undecanone, and 2-tridecanone were mainly reduced in a Tn5-transposon mutant unable to inhibit at distance the growth of L. pneumophila strain Lens. We showed that 1-undecene was mainly responsible for the inhibition at distance in vitro, and led to cell lysis in small amounts, as determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Collectively, our results provide new insights into the mode of action of bacterial volatiles and highlight them as potent anti-Legionella agents to focus research on novel strategies to fight legionellosis.

IMPORTANCE Microbial volatile compounds are molecules whose activities are increasingly attracting the attention of researchers. Indeed, they can act as key compounds in long-distance intrakingdom and interkingdom communication, but also as antimicrobials in competition and predation. In fact, most studies to date have focused on their antifungal activities and only a few have reported on their antibacterial properties. Here, we describe that 1-undecene, naturally produced by P. fluorescens, is a volatile with potent activity against bacteria of the genus Legionella. In small amounts, it is capable of inducing cell lysis even when the producing strain is physically separated from the target. This is the first time that such activity is described. This molecule could therefore constitute an efficient compound to counter bacterial pathogens whose treatment may fail, particularly in pulmonary diseases. Indeed, inhalation of these volatiles should be considered as a possible route of therapy in addition to antibiotic treatment.

Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy of Bacterial Metabolites for Bacterial Growth Monitoring and Diagnosis of Viral Infection

Bacterial metabolites are intermediate products of bacterial metabolism and their production reflects metabolic activity. Herein, we report the use of surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) for detection of both volatile and nonvolatile metabolites and the application of this approach for bacterial growth quantification and diagnosis of viral infection. The time-dependent SERS signal of the volatile metabolite dimethyl disulfide in the headspace above bacteria growing on an agar plate was detected and quantified. In addition, SERS signals arising from the plate reflected nutrient consumption and production of nonvolatile metabolites. The measurement of metabolite accumulation can be used for bacterial quantification. In the presence of bacteriophage virus, bacterial metabolism is suppressed, and the relative decrease in SERS intensity reflects the initial virus concentration. Using multivariate analysis, we detect viral infection with a prediction accuracy of 93%. Our SERS-based approach for metabolite production monitoring provides new insights toward viral infection diagnosis.

A hybrid electronic nose system for discrimination of pathogenic bacterial volatile compounds

A hybrid electronic nose comprising an array of three organic-inorganic nanocomposite gas sensors [zinc tetra tert-butyl phthalocyanine (ZnTTBPc), zinc tetra-phenyl porphyrin (ZnTPP), and cobalt tetraphenyl-porphyrin (CoTPP)] coupled with three commercial metal-oxide semiconductor gas sensors (TGS 2444, TGS 2603 and TGS 2620) was developed to discriminate bacterial volatile compounds. Each type of gas sensor had its own strengths and weaknesses in terms of its capability to detect complex odors from the five different bacterial species tested. Bacterial samples were controlled at a fixed initial bacterial concentration by measuring the optical density at 600 nm of the culture suspensions. A comparative evaluation of the volatile compound fingerprints from five bacterial species grown in Luria-Bertani medium was conducted to identify the optimal incubation time for detection of volatile biomarkers to discriminate among bacteria. The results suggest that the hybrid electronic nose was indeed able to discriminate among the bacterial species and culture media, with a variance based on contributions of 92.4% from PC1 and 7.2% from PC2, at an incubation time of 6 hours. Furthermore, the results of hierarchical cluster analysis showed that bacterial odor data formed two major bacterial groups, with the maximum cluster distance close to 25. Intra-group similarity was demonstrated as the two bacterial species (E. cloacae and P. aeruginosa) from among the Gram-negative bacteria had a greater similarity with a cluster distance close to 4. Finally, the minimum distance between E. cloacae and S. Typhi was approximately 1, at an equal distance from E. coli and S. aureus.

Novel biotechnological approaches for monitoring and immunization against resistant to antibiotics Escherichia coli and other pathogenic bacteria

The application of next-generation molecular, biochemical and immunological methods for developing new vaccines, antimicrobial compounds, probiotics and prebiotics for zoonotic infection control has been fundamental to the understanding and preservation of the symbiotic relationship between animals and humans. With increasing rates of antibiotic use, resistant bacterial infections have become more difficult to diagnose, treat, and eradicate, thereby elevating the importance of surveillance and prevention programs. Effective surveillance relies on the availability of rapid, cost-effective methods to monitor pathogenic bacterial isolates. In this opinion article, we summarize the results of some research program initiatives for the improvement of live vaccines against avian enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli using virulence factor gene deletion and engineered vaccine vectors based on probiotics. We also describe methods for the detection of pathogenic bacterial strains in eco-environmental headspace and aerosols, as well as samples of animal and human breath, based on the composition of volatile organic compounds and fatty acid methyl esters. We explain how the introduction of these low-cost biotechnologies and protocols will provide the opportunity to enhance co-operation between networks of resistance surveillance programs and integrated routine workflows of veterinary and clinical public health microbiology laboratories.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa Volatilome Characteristics and Adaptations in Chronic Cystic Fibrosis Lung Infections

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a leading cause of chronic lung infections in cystic fibrosis (CF), which are correlated with lung function decline. Significant clinical efforts are therefore aimed at detecting infections and tracking them for phenotypic changes, such as mucoidy and antibiotic resistance. Both the detection and tracking of lung infections rely on sputum cultures, but due to improvements in CF therapies, sputum production is declining, although risks for lung infections persist. Therefore, we are working toward the development of breath-based diagnostics for CF lung infections. In this study, we characterized of the volatile metabolomes of 81 P. aeruginosa clinical isolates collected from 17 CF patients over a duration of at least 5 years of a chronic lung infection. We found that the volatilome of P. aeruginosa adapts over time and is correlated with infection phenotype changes, suggesting that it may be possible to track chronic CF lung infections with a breath test.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa chronic lung infections in individuals with cystic fibrosis (CF) significantly reduce quality of life and increase morbidity and mortality. Tracking these infections is critical for monitoring patient health and informing treatments. We are working toward the development of novel breath-based biomarkers to track chronic P. aeruginosa lung infections in situ. Using comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC×GC–TOF-MS), we characterized the in vitro volatile metabolomes (“volatilomes”) of 81 P. aeruginosa isolates collected from 17 CF patients over at least a 5-year period of their chronic lung infections. We detected 539 volatiles produced by the P. aeruginosa isolates, 69 of which were core volatiles that were highly conserved. We found that each early infection isolate has a unique volatilome, and as infection progresses, the volatilomes of isolates from the same patient become increasingly dissimilar, to the point that these intrapatient isolates are no more similar to one another than to isolates from other patients. We observed that the size and chemical diversity of P. aeruginosa volatilomes do not change over the course of chronic infections; however, the relative abundances of core hydrocarbons, alcohols, and aldehydes do change and are correlated with changes in phenotypes associated with chronic infections. This study indicates that it may be feasible to track P. aeruginosa chronic lung infections by measuring changes to the infection volatilome and lays the groundwork for exploring the translatability of this approach to direct measurement using patient breath.

IMPORTANCEPseudomonas aeruginosa is a leading cause of chronic lung infections in cystic fibrosis (CF), which are correlated with lung function decline. Significant clinical efforts are therefore aimed at detecting infections and tracking them for phenotypic changes, such as mucoidy and antibiotic resistance. Both the detection and tracking of lung infections rely on sputum cultures, but due to improvements in CF therapies, sputum production is declining, although risks for lung infections persist. Therefore, we are working toward the development of breath-based diagnostics for CF lung infections. In this study, we characterized of the volatile metabolomes of 81 P. aeruginosa clinical isolates collected from 17 CF patients over a duration of at least 5 years of a chronic lung infection. We found that the volatilome of P. aeruginosa adapts over time and is correlated with infection phenotype changes, suggesting that it may be possible to track chronic CF lung infections with a breath test.

Genome-wide Analysis of Four Enterobacter cloacae complex type strains: Insights into Virulence and Niche Adaptation

Enterobacter cloacae complex (Ecc) species are widely distributed opportunistic pathogens mainly associated with humans and plants. In this study, the genomes of clinical isolates including E. hormaechei, E. kobei, and E. ludwigii and non-clinical isolate including E. nimipressuralis were analysed in combination with the genome of E. asburiae by using the reference strain E. cloacae subsp. cloacae ATCC 13047; the Ecc strains were tested on artificial sputum media (ASM), which mimics the host, to evaluate T6SS genes as a case study. All five Ecc strains were sequenced in our lab. Comparative genome analysis of the Ecc strains revealed that genes associated with the survival of Ecc strains, including genes of metal-requiring proteins, defence-associated genes and genes associated with general physiology, were highly conserved in the genomes. However, the genes involved in virulence and drug resistance, specifically those involved in bacterial secretion, host determination and colonization of different strains, were present in different genomic regions. For example, T6SS accessory and core components, T4SS, and multidrug resistance genes/efflux system genes seemed vital for the survival of Ecc strains in various environmental niches, such as humans and plants. Moreover, the ASM host-mimicking growth medium revealed significantly high expression of T6SS genes, including PrpC, which is a regulatory gene of the T6SS, in all tested Ecc strains compared to the control medium. The variations in T6SS gene expression in ASM vs. control showed that the ASM system represents a simple, reproducible and economical alternative to animal models for studies such as those aimed at understanding the divergence of Ecc populations. In summary, genome sequencing of clinical and environmental Ecc genomes will assist in understanding the epidemiology of Ecc strains, including the isolation, virulence characteristics, prevention and treatment of infectious disease caused by these broad-host-range niche-associated species.

Analysis of volatile metabolites from in vitro biofilms of Pseudomonas aeruginosa with thin-film microextraction by thermal desorption gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an autosomal recessive inherited disease which leads to a production of thickened mucus in the airways. These conditions are conducive to poly-microbial infections, like chronic lung infection, in which Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) is the major pathogenic bacterium colonizing CF lungs at the end of the lifetime of CF patients. This in vitro study uses a P. aeruginosa biofilm model under partly cystic fibrosis conditions, with a sampling of volatile extracellular metabolites. The gas sampling was done with thin-film microextraction (TFME) and commercial polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) films, whereas the analysis of loaded films was done by gas chromatography coupled to quadrupole mass spectrometry and thermodesorption (TD-GC-qMS). For this purpose, two commercially available films were characterized by means of thermogravimetry coupled to a qMS with atmospheric pressure photo ionization (TG-APPI-qMS), regarding homogeneity and temperature stability. The selected film was cleaned using a method developed in this study. The TD-GC-qMS method was successfully used for standards of volatile metabolites which were known to be produced by P. aeruginosa. Limits of detection and quantification of the method for middle and less polar compounds in low nanomolar range (0.5 nM and 1.5 nM) were achieved. The developed method was finally applied to investigate the extracellular volatile metabolites produced by biofilms of the strain P. aeruginosa DSM 50071 under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. In sum, eleven metabolites could be found under both conditions. Furthermore, it was shown in this study that different oxygen conditions (aerobic and anaerobic) resulted in emitting different extracellular volatile metabolites. Specific metabolites, like 1-undecene (aerobic) and 2-undecanone (anaerobic), could be identified. The results are promising, in that the biofilm model may be applicable for the identification of P. aeruginosa under clinical conditions. Furthermore, the model could be the basis for studying extracellular volatile metabolites from different mono- or co-cultures of various bacteria, as well as the implementation of pulmonary conditions, like these in CF lungs. This possibility allows the development of a non-invasive “at-bedside” breath analysis method for CF patients in focus of various bacterial infections.

New markers for sepsis caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa during burn infection

INTRODUCTION

Sepsis is a leading cause of mortality in burn patients. One of the major causes of sepsis in burn patients is Pseudomonas aeruginosa. We hypothesized that during dissemination from infected burn wounds and subsequent sepsis, P. aeruginosa affects the metabolome of the blood resulting in changes to specific metabolites that would serve as biomarkers for early diagnosis of sepsis caused by P. aeruginosa.

OBJECTIVES

To identify specific biomarkers in the blood after sepsis caused by P. aeruginosa infection of burns.

METHODS

Gas chromatography with time-of-flight mass spectrometry was used to compare the serum metabolome of mice that were thermally injured and infected with P. aeruginosa (B-I) to that of mice that were neither injured nor infected, mice that were injured but not infected, and mice that were infected but not injured.

RESULTS

Serum levels of 19 metabolites were significantly increased in the B-I group compared to controls while levels of eight metabolites were significantly decreased. Thymidine, thymine, uridine, and uracil (related to pyrimidine metabolism), malate and succinate (a possible sign of imbalance in the tricarboxylic acid cycle), 5-oxoproline (related to glutamine and glutathione metabolism), and trans-4-hydroxyproline (a major component of the protein collagen) were increased. Products of amino acid metabolism were significantly decreased in the B-I group, including methionine, tyrosine, indole-3-acetate, and indole-3-propionate.

CONCLUSION

In all, 26 metabolites were identified, including a unique combination of five metabolites (trans-4-hydroxyproline, 5-oxoproline, glycerol-3-galactoside, indole-3-acetate, and indole-3-propionate) that could serve as a set of biomarkers for early diagnosis of sepsis caused by P. aeruginosa in burn patients.

High Efficacy of the Volatile Organic Compounds of Streptomyces yanglinensis 3-10 in Suppression of Aspergillus Contamination on Peanut Kernels

Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus are saprophytic fungi which can infect and contaminate preharvest and postharvest food/feed with production of aflatoxins (B1, B2, and G). They are also an opportunistic pathogen causing aspergillosis diseases of animals and humans. In this study, the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from Streptomyces yanglinensis 3-10 were found to be able to inhibit mycelial growth, sporulation, conidial germination, and expression of aflatoxin biosynthesis genes in A. flavus and A. parasiticus in vitro. On peanut kernels, the VOCs can also reduce the disease severity and inhibit the aflatoxins production by A. flavus and A. parasiticus under the storage conditions. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) observation showed that high dosage of the VOCs can inhibit conidial germination and colonization by the two species of Aspergillus on peanut kernels. The VOCs also showed suppression of mycelial growth on 18 other plant pathogenic fungi and one Oomycetes organism. By using SPME-GC-MS, 19 major VOCs were detected, like in other Streptomyces, 2-MIB was found as the main volatile component among the detected VOCs. Three standard chemicals, including methyl 2-methylbutyrate (M2M), 2-phenylethanol (2-PE), and β-caryophyllene (β-CA), showed antifungal activity against A. flavus and A. parasiticus. Among them, M2M showed highest inhibitory effect than other two standard compounds against conidial germination of A. flavus and A. parasiticus. To date, this is the first record about the antifungal activity of M2M against A. flavus and A. parasiticus. The VOCs from S. yanglinensis 3-10 did not affect growth of peanut seedlings. In conclusion, our results indicate that S. yanglinensis 3-10 may has a potential to become a promising biofumigant in for control of A. flavus and A. parasiticus.

Breathomics and treatable traits for chronic airway diseases

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The long-term management goals of the inflammatory airway diseases asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are similar and focus on symptom control and reduction of exacerbation frequency and severity. Treatable traits have recently been postulated as a management concept which complements the traditional diagnostic labels 'asthma' and 'COPD', thereby focusing on therapy targeted to a patients' individual disease-associated characteristics. Exhaled volatile organic compounds (VOCs) may be utilized as noninvasive biomarker for disease activity or manifestation in asthma and COPD. In this review, we provide an overview of the current achievements concerning exhaled breath analysis in the field of uncontrolled chronic airways diseases.

RECENT FINDINGS

Monitoring of (airway) inflammation and identification of (molecular) phenotypic characteristics in asthma and COPD through exhaled VOC analysis by either mass spectrometry (MS) based or sensor-driven electronic nose technology (eNose) seems to be feasible, however pending confirmation could hamper the valorization of breathomics into clinical tests.

SUMMARY

Exhaled VOC analysis and the management of asthma and COPD through the concept of pulmonary treatable traits are an interesting match. To develop exhaled breath analysis into an added value for pulmonary treatable traits, multicentre studies are required following international standards for study populations, sampling methods and analytical strategies enabling external validation.

Sniffing animals as a diagnostic tool in infectious diseases

BACKGROUND

Scents and odours characterize some microbes when grown in the laboratory, and experienced clinicians can diagnose patients with some infectious diseases based on their smell. Animal sniffing is an innate behaviour, and animals' olfactory acuity is used for detecting people, weapons, bombs, narcotics and food.

OBJECTIVES

We briefly summarized current knowledge regarding the use of sniffing animals to diagnose some infectious diseases and the potential use of scent-based diagnostic instruments in microbiology.

SOURCES

Information was sought through PubMed and extracted from peer-reviewed literature published between January 2000 and September 2019 and from reliable online news. The search terms 'odour', 'scent', 'bacteria', 'diagnostics', 'tuberculosis', 'malaria' and 'volatile compounds' were used.

CONTENT

Four major areas of using sniffing animals are summarized. Dogs have been used to reliably detect stool associated with toxigenic Clostridioides difficile and for surveillance. Dogs showed high sensitivity and moderate specificity for detecting urinary tract infections in comparison to culture, especially for Escherichia coli. African giant pouched rats showed superiority for diagnosing tuberculosis over microscopy, but inferiority to culture/molecular methods. Several approaches for detecting malaria by analysing host skin odour or exhaled breath have been explored successfully. Some microbial infections produce specific volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which can be analysed by spectrometry, metabolomics or other analytical approaches to replace animal sniffing.

IMPLICATIONS

The results of sniffing animal studies are fascinating, and animal sniffing can provide intermediate diagnostic solutions for some infectious diseases. Lack of reproducibility, and cost of animal training and housing are major drawbacks for wider implementation of sniffing animals. The ultimate goal is to understand the biological background of this animal ability and to characterize the specific VOCs that animals are recognizing. VOC identification, improvement of odour sampling methods and development of point-of-care instruments could allow implementation of scent-based tests for major human pathogens.

Metabolomic studies of Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a common, Gram-negative environmental organism. It can be a significant pathogenic factor of severe infections in humans, especially in cystic fibrosis patients. Due to its natural resistance to antibiotics and the ability to form biofilms, infection with this pathogen can cause severe therapeutic problems. In recent years, metabolomic studies of P. aeruginosa have been performed. Therefore, in this review, we discussed recent achievements in the use of metabolomics methods in bacterial identification, differentiation, the interconnection between genome and metabolome, the influence of external factors on the bacterial metabolome and identification of new metabolites produced by P. aeruginosa. All of these studies may provide valuable information about metabolic pathways leading to an understanding of the adaptations of bacterial strains to a host environment, which can lead to new drug development and/or elaboration of new treatment and diagnostics strategies for Pseudomonas.