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Karpuz M, Ozgenc E, Oner E, Atlihan-Gundogdu E, Burak Z. 68 Ga-labeled, imatinib encapsulated, theranostic liposomes: Formulation, characterization, and in vitro evaluation of anticancer activity. Drug Dev Res 2024; 85:e22136. [PMID: 38009423 DOI: 10.1002/ddr.22136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Revised: 10/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 11/28/2023]
Abstract
Cancer is still a global health problem. Among cancer types, breast cancer is the most frequently diagnosed one, and it causes a high mortality rate if not diagnosed in the early stages. In our study, imatinib encapsulated, nanosized, neutral/cationic liposome formulations were prepared as theranostic agents for breast cancer. After the characterization studies in which all liposomes exhibited proper profile owing to their particle size between 133 and 250 nm, polydispersity index values lower than 0.4, neutral and cationic zeta potential values, and high drug encapsulation efficiency, controlled drug release behaviors with zero-order kinetic were obtained. The higher than 90% radiolabeling efficiency values were obtained thanks to the determination of optimum radiolabeling condition (80°C temperature, 5 mCi radioactivity, and 10 min incubation period). According to the resazurin assay evaluating the cytotoxic profile of liposomes on MCF7 cells, neutral empty liposome was found as biocompatible, while both cationic liposomes (empty and drug-loaded ones) exhibited high nonspecific cytotoxicity at even low drug concentration due to the existence of stearyl amine in the formulations. However, dose-dependent cytotoxic effect and the highest cellular binding capacity were obtained by imatinib loaded neutral liposomes. In conclusion, 68 Ga-radiolabeled, imatinib-loaded, neutral, nanosized liposome formulation is the most promising one as a theranostic agent among all formulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Merve Karpuz
- Department of Radiopharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Emre Ozgenc
- Department of Radiopharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Ezgi Oner
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir, Turkey
- Thoracic Oncology Research Group, Trinity Translational Medicine Institute, St James's Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Trinity School of Medicine, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | | | - Zeynep Burak
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
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Ding Y, Liu Y, Zhang L, Deng Y, Chen H, Lan X, Jiang D, Cao W. Quantitative assessment of renal functions using 68Ga-EDTA dynamic PET imaging in renal injury in mice of different origins. Front Med (Lausanne) 2023; 10:1143473. [PMID: 37051215 PMCID: PMC10083276 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2023.1143473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 03/28/2023] Open
Abstract
BackgroundEarly detection of kidney diseases can be challenging as conventional methods such as blood tests or imaging techniques (computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), or ultrasonography) may be insufficient to assess renal function. A single-photon emission CT (SPECT) renal scan provides a means of measuring glomerular filtration rates (GFRs), but its diagnostic accuracy is limited due to its planar imaging modality and semi-quantification property. In this study, we aimed to improve the accuracy of GFR measurement by preparing a positron emission tonometry (PET) tracer 68Ga-Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (68Ga-EDTA) and comprehensively evaluating its performance in healthy mice and murine models of renal dysfunction.MethodsDynamic PET scans were performed in healthy C57BL/6 mice and in models of renal injury, including acute kidney injury (AKI) and unilateral ureter obstruction (UUO) using 68Ga-EDTA. In a 30-min dynamic scan, PET images and time-activity curves (TACs) were acquired. Renal function and GFR values were measured using renograms and validated through serum renal function parameters, biodistribution results, and pathological staining.Results68Ga-EDTA dynamic PET imaging quantitatively captured the tracer elimination process. The calculated GFR values were 0.25 ± 0.02 ml/min in healthy mice, 0.01 ± 0.00 ml/min in AKI mice, and 0.25 ± 0.04, 0.29 ± 0.03 and 0.24 ± 0.01 ml/min in UUO mice, respectively. Furthermore, 68Ga-EDTA dynamic PET imaging and GFRPET were able to differentiate mild renal impairment before serum parameters indicated any changes.ConclusionsOur findings demonstrate that 68Ga-EDTA dynamic PET provides a reliable and precise means of evaluating renal function in two murine models of renal injury. These results hold promise for the widespread clinical application of 68Ga-EDTA dynamic PET in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Ding
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Wuhan, China
- Key Laboratory of Biological Targeted Therapy, The Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China
| | - Yu Liu
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Wuhan, China
- Key Laboratory of Biological Targeted Therapy, The Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China
| | - Li Zhang
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Wuhan, China
- Key Laboratory of Biological Targeted Therapy, The Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China
| | - Yinqian Deng
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Wuhan, China
- Key Laboratory of Biological Targeted Therapy, The Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China
| | - Huanyu Chen
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Wuhan, China
- Key Laboratory of Biological Targeted Therapy, The Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China
| | - Xiaoli Lan
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Wuhan, China
- Key Laboratory of Biological Targeted Therapy, The Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China
| | - Dawei Jiang
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Wuhan, China
- Key Laboratory of Biological Targeted Therapy, The Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China
- Dawei Jiang
| | - Wei Cao
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Molecular Imaging, Wuhan, China
- Key Laboratory of Biological Targeted Therapy, The Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China
- *Correspondence: Wei Cao
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Lepareur N. Cold Kit Labeling: The Future of 68Ga Radiopharmaceuticals? Front Med (Lausanne) 2022; 9:812050. [PMID: 35223907 PMCID: PMC8869247 DOI: 10.3389/fmed.2022.812050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the last couple of decades, gallium-68 (68Ga) has gained a formidable interest for PET molecular imaging of various conditions, from cancer to infection, through cardiac pathologies or neuropathies. It has gained routine use, with successful radiopharmaceuticals such as somatostatin analogs ([68Ga]Ga-DOTATOC and [68Ga]GaDOTATATE) for neuroendocrine tumors, and PSMA ligands for prostate cancer. It represents a major clinical impact, particularly in the context of theranostics, coupled with their 177Lu-labeled counterparts. Beside those, a bunch of new 68Ga-labeled molecules are in the preclinical and clinical pipelines, with some of them showing great promise for patient care. Increasing clinical demand and regulatory issues have led to the development of automated procedures for the production of 68Ga radiopharmaceuticals. However, the widespread use of these radiopharmaceuticals may rely on simple and efficient radiolabeling methods, undemanding in terms of equipment and infrastructure. To make them technically and economically accessible to the medical community and its patients, it appears mandatory to develop a procedure similar to the well-established kit-based 99mTc chemistry. Already available commercial kits for the production of 68Ga radiopharmaceuticals have demonstrated the feasibility of using such an approach, thus paving the way for more kit-based 68Ga radiopharmaceuticals to be developed. This article discusses the development of 68Ga cold kit radiopharmacy, including technical issues, and regulatory aspects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Lepareur
- Comprehensive Cancer Center Eugène Marquis, Rennes, France
- Univ Rennes, Inrae, Inserm, Institut NUMECAN (Nutrition, Métabolismes et Cancer), UMR_A 1341, UMR_S 1241, Rennes, France
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Warwick J, Holness J. Measurement of Glomerular Filtration Rate. Semin Nucl Med 2022; 52:453-466. [DOI: 10.1053/j.semnuclmed.2021.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Volkan-Salanci B, Erbaş B. Diuretic Renal Scintigraphy in Adults: Practical Aspects and Reporting. Semin Nucl Med 2022; 52:445-452. [DOI: 10.1053/j.semnuclmed.2021.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Liu P, Johnson SE, Xie X, Gao L, Haney CR, Zhao M, Jin J. Targeted design of a recombinant tracer for SPECT renal imaging. Am J Cancer Res 2021; 11:9118-9132. [PMID: 34522230 PMCID: PMC8419037 DOI: 10.7150/thno.60132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Rationale: A robust radiopharmaceutical has high uptake in the target and low retention in non-target tissues. However, traditional tracers for renal imaging that chemically chelate 99mTc are excreted through the renal route with transient resident time in the kidney. Following a rational design approach, we constructed a protein-based radiotracer, designated PBT-Fc, to sequentially bind tubular neonatal Fc-receptor and subsequently proximal tubular basement membrane for its targeted sequestration in kidney parenchyma. In this process, the tracer participates in physiologic glomerular filtration and tubular reabsorption while escaping lysosomal catabolism and urinary clearance. Methods: To specifically target renal receptors in navigating the urinary passage in the kidney, we produced a recombinant fusion protein with two separate functional parts: a polybasic PBT segment derived from human Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor and Fc segment of IgG1. The chimeric fusion of PBT-Fc was labeled with radionuclide 99mTc and tested in rodent models of kidney diseases. Planar scintigraphy and single-photon emission computerized tomography (SPECT) were performed to evaluate renal-specificity of the tracer. Results: When injected in mouse and rat, following a brief 10 - 15 min dynamic redistribution phase in circulation, ~ 95% of the [99mTc]-PBT-Fc signal was concentrated in the kidney and lasted for hours without urinary loss or surrounding tissue activities. Long-lasting tracer signals in the kidney cortex in conjunction with SPECT greatly augmented the image quality in detecting pathological lesions in a variety of disease models, including ischemic acute kidney injury, drug-induced renal toxicity, and chronic kidney disease from renin-angiotensin system (RAS) overactivation. Conclusion: Exclusive renal retention of the recombinant radiotracer greatly facilitated static-phase signal acquisition by SPECT and achieved submillimeter spatial resolution of kidney alternations in glomerular and tubular disease models.
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GALI HARIPRASAD. Development of radiopharmaceuticals for PET renography. J CHEM SCI 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s12039-021-01924-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Preclinical Evaluation of [ 18F]FACH in Healthy Mice and Piglets: An 18F-Labeled Ligand for Imaging of Monocarboxylate Transporters with PET. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22041645. [PMID: 33562048 PMCID: PMC7915902 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22041645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Revised: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The expression of monocarboxylate transporters (MCTs) is linked to pathophysiological changes in diseases, including cancer, such that MCTs could potentially serve as diagnostic markers or therapeutic targets. We recently developed [18F]FACH as a radiotracer for non-invasive molecular imaging of MCTs by positron emission tomography (PET). The aim of this study was to evaluate further the specificity, metabolic stability, and pharmacokinetics of [18F]FACH in healthy mice and piglets. We measured the [18F]FACH plasma protein binding fractions in mice and piglets and the specific binding in cryosections of murine kidney and lung. The biodistribution of [18F]FACH was evaluated by tissue sampling ex vivo and by dynamic PET/MRI in vivo, with and without pre-treatment by the MCT inhibitor α-CCA-Na or the reference compound, FACH-Na. Additionally, we performed compartmental modelling of the PET signal in kidney cortex and liver. Saturation binding studies in kidney cortex cryosections indicated a KD of 118 ± 12 nM and Bmax of 6.0 pmol/mg wet weight. The specificity of [18F]FACH uptake in the kidney cortex was confirmed in vivo by reductions in AUC0–60min after pre-treatment with α-CCA-Na in mice (−47%) and in piglets (−66%). [18F]FACH was metabolically stable in mouse, but polar radio-metabolites were present in plasma and tissues of piglets. The [18F]FACH binding potential (BPND) in the kidney cortex was approximately 1.3 in mice. The MCT1 specificity of [18F]FACH uptake was confirmed by displacement studies in 4T1 cells. [18F]FACH has suitable properties for the detection of the MCTs in kidney, and thus has potential as a molecular imaging tool for MCT-related pathologies, which should next be assessed in relevant disease models.
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Sanchez CR, Hayek LAC, Carlin EP, Brown SA, Citino S, Marker L, Jones KL, Murray S. Glomerular filtration rate determined by measuring serum clearance of a single dose of inulin and serum symmetric dimethylarginine concentration in clinically normal cheetahs ( Acinonyx jubatus). Am J Vet Res 2020; 81:375-380. [DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.81.4.375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Shi S, Zhang L, Wu Z, Zhang A, Hong H, Choi SR, Zhu L, Kung HF. [ 68Ga]Ga-HBED-CC-DiAsp: A new renal function imaging agent. Nucl Med Biol 2019; 82-83:17-24. [PMID: 31869735 DOI: 10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2019.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Revised: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 12/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION [68Ga]Ga-EDTA ([68Ga]Ga-ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid) was previously reported as a renal imaging agent for measuring GFR (glomerular filtration rate). In an effort to provide new agents with better in vivo characteristics for renal imaging, [68Ga]Ga-HBED-CC-DiAsp (Di-Aspartic acid derivative of N,N'-bis [2-hydroxy-5-(carboxyethyl)benzyl]-ethylenediamine-N,N'-diacetic acid) was prepared and tested. METHOD HBED-CC-DiAsp was synthesized and labeled with [68Ga]GaCl4- at room temperature. Plasma protein and red blood cells (RBC) binding were also evaluated. Biodistribution and dynamic PET imaging studies were performed in mice and rats, respectively. RESULTS [68Ga]Ga-HBED-CC-DiAsp was radiolabeled at room temperature by a one-step kit formulation in high purity without any purification (radiochemical purity >98%). Previous reports suggested that Ga-HBED-CC exhibited a higher stability constant and rapid chelating formation rate than that of Ga-EDTA (logKGaL = 38.5 vs 22.1, respectively). In vitro stability studies indicated that it was stable up to 120 min. The log DOW value, partition coefficient between n-octanol and water, was found to be -2.52 ± 0.08. Plasma protein and RBC binding was similar to that observed for [68Ga]Ga-EDTA. Biodistribution and dynamic PET/CT imaging studies in rats revealed a rapid clearance primarily through the renal-urinary pathway. The PET-derived [68Ga]Ga-HBED-CC-DiAsp renograms in rats showed an average time-to-peak of 3.6 ± 0.7 min which was similar to that observed for [68Ga]Ga-EDTA (3.1 ± 0.5 min). The time-to-half-maximal activity was also comparable to that of [68Ga]Ga-EDTA (8.8 vs 8.2 min, respectively). Pretreatment of probenecid, a renal tubular excretion inhibitor, showed no significant effect on renal excretion. CONCLUSIONS [68Ga]Ga-HBED-CC-DiAsp could be prepared quickly at room temperature in high yield and purity. Results of in vitro studies and in vivo biodistribution in mice and rats suggested that [68Ga]Ga-HBED-CC-DiAsp might be useful as a PET imaging agent for measurement of GFR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengyu Shi
- Key Laboratory of Radiopharmaceuticals, College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Lifang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Radiopharmaceuticals, College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Zehui Wu
- Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China; Department of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Aili Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Radiopharmaceuticals, College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Haiyan Hong
- Key Laboratory of Radiopharmaceuticals, College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Seok Rye Choi
- Department of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Lin Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Radiopharmaceuticals, College of Chemistry, Beijing Normal University, Ministry of Education, Beijing 100875, China; Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China.
| | - Hank F Kung
- Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China; Department of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA.
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Werner RA, Chen X, Lapa C, Koshino K, Rowe SP, Pomper MG, Javadi MS, Higuchi T. The next era of renal radionuclide imaging: novel PET radiotracers. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2019; 46:1773-1786. [PMID: 31144061 PMCID: PMC6647203 DOI: 10.1007/s00259-019-04359-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Although single-photon-emitting radiotracers have long been the standard for renal functional molecular imaging, recent years have seen the development of positron emission tomography (PET) agents for this application. We provide an overview of renal radionuclide PET radiotracers, in particular focusing on novel 18F-labelled and 68Ga-labelled agents. Several reported PET imaging probes allow assessment of glomerular filtration rate, such as [68Ga]ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid ([68Ga]EDTA), [68Ga]IRDye800-tilmanocept and 2-deoxy-2-[18F]fluorosorbitol ([18F]FDS)). The diagnostic performance of [68Ga]EDTA has already been demonstrated in a clinical trial. [68Ga]IRDye800-tilmanocept shows receptor-mediated binding to glomerular mesangial cells, which in turn may allow the monitoring of progression of diabetic nephropathy. [18F]FDS shows excellent kidney extraction and excretion in rats and, as has been shown in the first study in humans. Further, due to its simple one-step radiosynthesis via the most frequently used PET radiotracer 2-deoxy-2-[18F]fluoro-D-glucose, [18F]FDS could be available at nearly every PET centre. A new PET radiotracer has also been introduced for the effective assessment of plasma flow in the kidneys: Re(CO)3-N-([18F]fluoroethyl)iminodiacetic acid (Re(CO)3([18F]FEDA)). This compound demonstrates similar pharmacokinetic properties to its 99mTc-labelled analogue [99mTc](CO)3(FEDA). Thus, if there is a shortage of molybdenum-99, Re(CO)3([18F]FEDA would allow direct comparison with previous studies with 99mTc. The PET radiotracers for renal imaging reviewed here allow thorough evaluation of kidney function, with the tremendous advantage of precise anatomical coregistration with simultaneously acquired CT images and rapid three-dimensional imaging capability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rudolf A Werner
- Department of Nuclear Medicine/Comprehensive Heart Failure Center, University of Wuerzburg, Oberduerrbacher Strasse 6, 97080, Wuerzburg, Germany
- Comprehensive Heart Failure Center, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Xinyu Chen
- Department of Nuclear Medicine/Comprehensive Heart Failure Center, University of Wuerzburg, Oberduerrbacher Strasse 6, 97080, Wuerzburg, Germany
- Comprehensive Heart Failure Center, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Constantin Lapa
- Department of Nuclear Medicine/Comprehensive Heart Failure Center, University of Wuerzburg, Oberduerrbacher Strasse 6, 97080, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Kazuhiro Koshino
- Department of Biomedical Imaging, National Cardiovascular and Cerebral Center, Suita, Japan
| | - Steven P Rowe
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, The Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- The James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute and Department of Urology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Martin G Pomper
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, The Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
- The James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute and Department of Urology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Mehrbod S Javadi
- Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging, The Russell H. Morgan Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Takahiro Higuchi
- Department of Nuclear Medicine/Comprehensive Heart Failure Center, University of Wuerzburg, Oberduerrbacher Strasse 6, 97080, Wuerzburg, Germany.
- Comprehensive Heart Failure Center, University of Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany.
- Department of Biomedical Imaging, National Cardiovascular and Cerebral Center, Suita, Japan.
- Medicine, Dentistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Okayama University Graduate School, Okayama, Japan.
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