Functional landscapes in cities: a systems approach

Transformation of Green Areas in Central Squares after Revitalization: Evidence from Cittaslow Towns in Northeast Poland

In recent years, unfavorable changes in the development of city squares can be observed in Poland due to poorly conducted revitalization. These changes include, among others, the elimination of greenery or its significant reduction and the introduction of impervious surfaces to the places formerly designated by forms of greenery. This article highlights the need to redesign the central squares in small towns as part of their revitalization, including three levels of approach: functional, ecological, and aesthetic. The research aimed to analyze the degree of changes in the development of green areas in central squares due to the implementation of revitalization projects. Central squares in four selected towns of Cittaslow from the Warmia and Mazury region (northeastern Poland) were selected as the research area. The methods of comparative analysis were used, considering the comparison of functions, space, and composition, as well as the “research by design” method, which was adopted. A comparative analysis of changes in the arrangement of squares and analysis of changes in greenery structure was performed. The results showed that, in two examples, the changes related to removing greenery from the squares were not on a large scale due to the compensation with new forms. However, the vegetation was removed in two squares without introducing new forms or compensating for the greenery to a minimum extent. This allowed us to answer whether the structure and various forms submitted in the greenery projects in the squares, so-called landscape architecture objects, correspond to the current ecological design requirements. From the perspective of landscape architecture and ecological design, it was positive to introduce a diversified vegetation structure and supplement it with medium and tall forms, as evidenced by the development of the square in Biskupiec. However, the results also showed a negative aspect of the revitalization conducted by removing the greenery and replacing it with an impermeable surface, for example, in the square in Bartoszyce. The final stage was to propose general guidelines for revitalizing squares and design proposals considering introducing plant forms in the squares in the four analyzed towns.

The grey - green spectrum: A review of coastal protection interventions

In the face of uncertainties around coastal management and climate change, coastal engineering interventions need to be able to adapt to changing conditions. Nature-based solutions and other non-traditional, integrated interventions are gaining traction. However, system-based views are not yet embedded into coastal management strategies. Moreover, the differences in coastal interventions, ranging from hard ('grey') to nature-based ('green') infrastructure remain understudied. In coastal management it is therefore challenging to work with the grey-green spectrum of interventions with clarity and focus, and to produce results that can be evaluated. The objective of this paper was to examine whether there is a common understanding of: the characteristics and differences between grey and green infrastructure, where interventions sit on this spectrum, and the resilience of grey versus green infrastructure. We conducted an integrative literature review of the grey-green spectrum of coastal infrastructure. We examined 105 coastal protection case studies and expanded the double-insurance framework to ensure an integrative approach, looking at both external and internal factors of resilience. Our review showed that external factors are typically used to characterise the grey-green spectrum. However, although useful, they do not facilitate a holistic comparison of alternative interventions. The additional consideration of internal factors (response diversity, multifunctionality, modularity and adaptive, participatory governance) bridges this gap. The review showed that dikes, reefs, saltmarshes, sand nourishment and dunes span a wider segment of the grey-green spectrum than they are generally categorised in. Furthermore, resilient solutions for adaptation are unlikely to be exclusively engineered or natural, but tend to be a mix of the two at different spatial scales (micro, meso, macro and mega). Our review therefore suggests that coastal planners benefit from a more diverse range of options when they consider the incorporation of grey and green interventions in the context of each spatial scale. We propose that internal resilience should be accounted for when infrastructure options are comparatively evaluated. This consideration brings attention to the ways in which the grey-hybrid-green spectrum of infrastructure enhances value for people.