The performance of nature reserves in capturing the biological diversity on Hainan Island, China

Phylogeography of Aphyocypris normalis Nichols and Pope, 1927 at Hainan Island and adjacent areas based on mitochondrial DNA data

We investigated the genetic structure of the freshwater fish Aphyocypris normalis, in 33 populations around Hainan Island and southern mainland China. Sequencing of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) cytochrome b from 127 specimens yielded 47 haplotypes, from which we inferred a Bayesian tree. This revealed three major divergences: a principal clade of specimens with widespread geographic distribution, plus two clades with limited distribution. We estimated that these diverged between 1.05-0.16 Ma. Additionally, based on molecular data and comparing with the climate patterns of Hainan Island, eight phylogeographic ranges (populations) of A. normalis were constructed: the eastern plain (E), northeastern hills and plain (NE), northwestern hills and lowlands (NW), central mountains (C), southeastern hills and plain (SE), southern mountains and hills (S), southwestern mountains and lowlands (SW), and western lowlands (W). The patterns of geographical divergence in this species do not reflect the isolation caused by the Qiongzhou (Hainan) Strait, which would generally be experienced by terrestrial animals on isolated islands. The present results indicate that the major clades within A. normalis have diverged before the temporary land bridge existed across the strait during the Last Glacial Maximum.

Relative contributions of natural and anthropogenic factors to the distribution patterns of nature reserves in mainland China

Nature reserves (NRs) are designated as a result of the ecosystem, species, economy, population, and land use coordination. However, the extent to which these factors influence the geographical pattern of NRs is unclear. Here, 11 indices (seven natural and four anthropogenic) were examined to identify these relationships in over 2600 terrestrial NRs in mainland China at the provincial level. Correlation analysis between natural and anthropogenic factors and NRs showed that desert and grassland had a positive correlation with NR coverage and area, and a negative correlation with NR density. This result was reversed in the correlation analysis between forest wetland coverage, endangered species, wildlife and NR coverage, area, and density. Similar results were found in the correlation analysis of all anthropogenic factors (population density, agricultural land, roads, and per capita GDP) with the coverage, area, and density of NRs. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) showed that three significant natural indicators (desert ecosystems, grasslands ecosystems, and forested and wetlands ecosystems) could explain 64.2 % of the pattern of NRs. The largest contributor was desert coverage, explaining 48.3 % (P = 0.002) of all indicators, followed by grassland coverage, explaining 8.6 % (P = 0.012), and forest and wetland coverage, explaining 7.3 % (P = 0.008). Human activities were significantly positively correlated with forest and wetland coverage, flora, and fauna, and negatively correlated with desert and grassland coverage. Compared with sand and grassland in the western region, the forest wetlands and wildlife in the eastern and central provinces were under greater pressure from anthropogenic activities. Therefore, natural factors determine the general layout of NRs, while the influence of anthropogenic activities makes the distribution of NRs patchy. When establishing national parks, governments must design strategies to coordinate areas with high biodiversity and high levels of human activity.

Review of the Chinese species of the genus Scelimena Serville, 1838 (Tetrigidae: Scelimeninae: Scelimenini)

A brief preliminary revision of the genus Scelimena Serville, 1838 (Tetrigidae: Scelimeninae: Scelimenini) from PR China is presented. Scelimena pyrroma Lao, Kasalo, Gao, Deng et Skejo sp. nov. is described from Hainan, Ding'an, based on a female holotype and a male paratype, and an additional photograph of a female in the natural habitat from Wuzhi National Nature Reserve (Wuzhi-shan Mountain). Specimens of this new species were hitherto reported from Hainan as S. dentiumeris (Hancock, 1907), a species endemic to Borneo. The new species is easily distinguished from its congeners by the presence of prominent yellow humeral tubercles and by the lateral pronotal spines directed forwards. The new species from Hainan and S. chinensis (Hancock, 1915) from Vietnam are assigned to Scelimena producta species group based on the similarity with S. producta (Serville, 1838), which is characterized by the humeral angles with tubercles, wide vertex, and toothed ventral margins of hind femora, while S. boettcheri Günther, 1938 from Palawan is assigned to Scelimena discalis species group, based on the tuberculated median carina. Scelimena dammermanni Günther, 1938, stat. nov., hitherto regarded as a subspecies of S. producta, is elevated to a species level because it lacks ventral spines on the hind legs, present in all S. producta individuals. New synonymy is established: Scelimena melli Günther, 1938, =Scelimena brevispina Cao et Zheng, 2011, syn. nov.; =Scelimena wulingshana Zheng, 1993, syn. nov.; =Eufalconoides guizhouensis Zheng et Shi, 2006, syn. nov. Scelimena melli, S. guangxiensis Zheng et Jiang, 1994 from southern China and S. kempi (Hancock, 1915) from NE India are assigned to S. bellula species group on the basis of similarity to S. bellula Storozhenko et Dawwrueng, 2015. Further research should determine whether S. spicupennis Zheng & Ou, 2003 represents a valid species or a synonym of another Scelimena species, as well as if S. nitidogranulosa Günther, 1938 and S. guangxiensis Zheng & Jiang, 1994 represent separate species or whether they are conspecific. Specimens of S. nitidogranulosa from Hainan reported by Liang & Zheng in 1998 are in fact Platygavialidium sinicum Günther, 1939. Scelimena songkrana Zha et Wen, 2017 is recorded from China for the first time. A key to Scelimena species found in PR China is also provided.  

Determinants of the beta diversity of tree species in tropical forests: Implications for biodiversity conservation

The mapping of earth's biodiversity has advanced our theoretical and empirical understanding of biodiversity and has thus guided conservation efforts. Yet, early biodiversity maps often relied on alpha diversity indices, while beta diversity has rarely been used for practical conservation actions. We used generalized dissimilarity modelling (GDM) and variance partitioning to map beta diversity patterns of Hainan Island, China, and explore its underlying factors based on a large dataset of 248,538 individual trees belonging to 1,016 species in 902 forest plots. We used principal component analysis and hierarchical clustering to visualize community similarity, and spatial overlap analysis to assess the ability of the current protected areas (PAs) to encompass beta diversity. The GDMs explained 27.65% and 26.58% of the variation in beta diversity at the genus and species levels, respectively. The community composition of tree species in Hainan presented a general east-to-west gradient, and three floristic regions were delineated. This biogeographical pattern is predominantly structured by mean annual precipitation. Environmental variables, rather than geographical distance, were the most important factors determining present beta diversity patterns. Currently, PAs of Hainan Island are concentrated on mountain forest areas, while the lowland forest has largely been ignored. Thus, we suggest that biodiversity mapping based only on alpha diversity is not enough to identify conservation gaps, and the inclusion of beta diversity in such maps constitutes a promising tool to maximize the biodiversity coverage of PAs. Our study provides empirical evidence that a spatially explicit analysis of beta diversity in a specific region can be used for conservation planning.

Identifying local-scale wilderness for on-ground conservation actions within a global biodiversity hotspot

Protecting wilderness areas (WAs) is a crucial proactive approach to sustain biodiversity. However, studies identifying local-scale WAs for on-ground conservation efforts are still very limited. This paper investigated the spatial patterns of wilderness in a global biodiversity hotspot – Three Parallel Rivers Region (TPRR) in southwest China. Wilderness was classified into levels 1 to 10 based on a cluster analysis of five indicators, namely human population density, naturalness, fragmentation, remoteness, and ruggedness. Only patches characterized by wilderness level 1 and ≥1.0 km² were considered WAs. The wilderness levels in the northwest were significantly higher than those in the southeast, and clearly increased with the increase in elevation. The WAs covered approximately 25% of TPRR’s land, 89.3% of which was located in the >3,000 m elevation zones. WAs consisted of 20 vegetation types, among which temperate conifer forest, cold temperate shrub and alpine ecosystems covered 79.4% of WAs’ total area. Most WAs were still not protected yet by existing reserves. Topography and human activities are the primary influencing factors on the spatial patterns of wilderness. We suggest establishing strictly protected reserves for most large WAs, while some sustainable management approaches might be more optimal solutions for many highly fragmented small WAs.

Optimized spatial priorities for biodiversity conservation in China: a systematic conservation planning perspective

By addressing several key features overlooked in previous studies, i.e. human disturbance, integration of ecosystem- and species-level conservation features, and principles of complementarity and representativeness, we present the first national-scale systematic conservation planning for China to determine the optimized spatial priorities for biodiversity conservation. We compiled a spatial database on the distributions of ecosystem- and species-level conservation features, and modeled a human disturbance index (HDI) by aggregating information using several socioeconomic proxies. We ran Marxan with two scenarios (HDI-ignored and HDI-considered) to investigate the effects of human disturbance, and explored the geographic patterns of the optimized spatial conservation priorities. Compared to when HDI was ignored, the HDI-considered scenario resulted in (1) a marked reduction (∼9%) in the total HDI score and a slight increase (∼7%) in the total area of the portfolio of priority units, (2) a significant increase (∼43%) in the total irreplaceable area and (3) more irreplaceable units being identified in almost all environmental zones and highly-disturbed provinces. Thus the inclusion of human disturbance is essential for cost-effective priority-setting. Attention should be targeted to the areas that are characterized as moderately-disturbed, <2,000 m in altitude, and/or intermediately- to extremely-rugged in terrain to identify potentially important regions for implementing cost-effective conservation. We delineated 23 primary large-scale priority areas that are significant for conserving China's biodiversity, but those isolated priority units in disturbed regions are in more urgent need of conservation actions so as to prevent immediate and severe biodiversity loss. This study presents a spatially optimized national-scale portfolio of conservation priorities – effectively representing the overall biodiversity of China while minimizing conflicts with economic development. Our results offer critical insights for current conservation and strategic land-use planning in China. The approach is transferable and easy to implement by end-users, and applicable for national- and local-scale systematic conservation prioritization practices.

Effectiveness of nature reserve system for conserving tropical forests: a statistical evaluation of Hainan Island, China

Evaluating the effectiveness of existing nature reserve systems for the conservation of tropical forests is an urgent task to save the remaining biodiversity. Here, we tested the effectiveness of the reserve system on Hainan Island by conducting a three-way comparison of changes in forest area in locations within the reserves, adjacent to the reserves, and far outside of the reserves. We used a general linear model to control for the effects of covariates (historical forest area, elevation, slope, and distance to nearest roads), which may also be correlated with the changes in forest area, to better explain the effectiveness of the reserve system. From 2000 to 2010, the forest area inside Hainan's nature reserve system showed an increase while adjacent unprotected areas and the wider, unprotected landscape both experienced deforestation. However, the simple inside-outside comparisons may overestimate the protective effect of the reserve system. Most nature reserves (>60%) showed increasing fragmentation. And the risk of rapid deforestation remained high at low elevations, where remaining forests tend to be easily logged and converted to commercial plantations. Future conservation efforts should pay more attention to those sites with less challenging environmental conditions.