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Melzi G, van Triel J, Durand E, Crayford A, Ortega IK, Barrellon-Vernay R, Duistermaat E, Delhaye D, Focsa C, Boom DHA, Kooter IM, Corsini E, Marinovich M, Gerlofs-Nijland M, Cassee FR. Toxicological evaluation of primary particulate matter emitted from combustion of aviation fuel. CHEMOSPHERE 2024:142958. [PMID: 39069102 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Revised: 07/23/2024] [Accepted: 07/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
Recently, Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) blends and novel combustion technologies have been introduced to reduce aircraft engine emissions. However, there is limited knowledge about the impact of combustion technology and fuel composition on toxicity of primary Particulate Matter (PM) emissions, comparable to regulated non-volatile PM (nvPM). In this study, primary PM was collected on filters using a standardised approach, from both a Rich-Quench-Lean (RQL) combustion rig and a bespoke liquid fuelled Combustion Aerosol Standard (CAST) Generator burning 12 aviation fuels including conventional Jet-A, SAFs, and blends thereof. The fuels varied in aromatics (0-25.2%), sulphur (0-3000 ppm) and hydrogen (13.43-15.31%) contents. Toxicity of the collected primary PM was studied in vitro utilising Air-Liquid Interface (ALI) exposure of lung epithelial cells (Calu-3) in monoculture and co-culture with macrophages (differentiated THP-1 cells). Cells were exposed to PM extracted from filters and nebulised from suspensions using a cloud-based ALI exposure system. Toxicity readout parameters were analysed 24h after exposure. RESULTS: showed presence of genotoxicity and changes in gene expression at dose levels which did not induce cytotoxicity. DNA damage was detected through Comet assay in cells exposed to CAST generated samples. Real-Time PCR performed to investigate the expression profile of genes involved in oxidative stress and DNA repair pathways showed different behaviours after exposure to the various PM samples. No differences were found in pro-inflammatory interleukin-8 secretion. This study indicates that primary PM toxicity is driven by wider factors than fuel composition, highlighting that further work is needed to substantiate the full toxicity of aircraft exhaust PM inclusive of secondary PM emanating from numerous engine technologies across the power range burning conventional Jet-A and SAF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gloria Melzi
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences (DiSFeB) "Rodolfo Paoletti", Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Jos van Triel
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720, BA, Bilthoven, the Netherlands.
| | - Eliot Durand
- Cardiff School of Engineering, Cardiff University, Wales, CF24 3AA, UK
| | - Andrew Crayford
- Cardiff School of Engineering, Cardiff University, Wales, CF24 3AA, UK
| | - Ismael K Ortega
- Multi-Physics for Energetics Department, ONERA, Université Paris Saclay, Palaiseau, F-91123, France
| | - Rafael Barrellon-Vernay
- Multi-Physics for Energetics Department, ONERA, Université Paris Saclay, Palaiseau, F-91123, France; University of Lille, CNRS, UMR 8523 - PhLAM - Physique des Lasers, Atomes et Molécules, Lille, F-59000, France
| | - Evert Duistermaat
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720, BA, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - David Delhaye
- Multi-Physics for Energetics Department, ONERA, Université Paris Saclay, Palaiseau, F-91123, France
| | - Cristian Focsa
- University of Lille, CNRS, UMR 8523 - PhLAM - Physique des Lasers, Atomes et Molécules, Lille, F-59000, France
| | - Devin H A Boom
- The Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Ingeborg M Kooter
- The Netherlands Organization for Applied Scientific Research, Utrecht, the Netherlands; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Center
| | - Emanuela Corsini
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences (DiSFeB) "Rodolfo Paoletti", Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Marina Marinovich
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences (DiSFeB) "Rodolfo Paoletti", Università degli Studi di Milano, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Miriam Gerlofs-Nijland
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720, BA, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - Flemming R Cassee
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720, BA, Bilthoven, the Netherlands; Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80178, 3508, TD, Utrecht, the Netherlands
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Rodríguez-Maroto JJ, García-Alonso S, Rojas E, Sanz D, Ibarra I, Pérez-Pastor R, Pujadas M, Hormigo D, Sánchez J, Moreno PM, Sánchez M, Kılıc D, Williams PI. Characterization of PAHs bound to ambient ultrafine particles around runways at an international airport. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 352:141440. [PMID: 38368961 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Revised: 02/07/2024] [Accepted: 02/09/2024] [Indexed: 02/20/2024]
Abstract
The impact of airport activities on air quality, is not sufficiently documented. In order to better understand the magnitude and properly assess the sources of emissions in the sector, it is necessary to establish databases with real data on those pollutants that could have the greatest impact on both health and the environment. Particulate matter (PM), especially ultrafine particles, are a research priority, not only because of its physical properties, but also because of its ability to bind highly toxic compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Samples of PM were collected in the ambient air around the runways at Barajas International Airport (Madrid, Spain) during October, November and December 2021. Samples were gathered using three different sampling systems and analysed to determine the concentration of PAHs bound to PM. A high-volume air sampler, a Berner low-pressure impactor, and an automated off-line sampler developed in-house were used. The agreement between the samplers was statistically verified from the PM and PAH results. The highest concentration of PM measured was 31 μg m-3, while the concentration of total PAH was 3 ng m-3, both comparable to those recorded in a semi-urban area of Madrid. The PAHs showed a similar profile to the particle size distribution, with a maximum in the 0.27-0.54 μm size range, being preferentially found in the submicron size fractions, with more than 84% and around 15-20% associated to UFPs. It was found that the ratio [PAHs(m)/PM(m)] was around 10-4 in the warmer period (October), whereas it more than doubled in the colder months (November-December). It is significant the shift in the relative distribution of compounds within these two periods, with a notable increase in the 5 and 6 ring proportions in the colder period. This increase was probably due to the additional contribution of other external sources, possibly thermal and related to combustion processes, as supported by the PAH diagnostic ratios.
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Affiliation(s)
- J J Rodríguez-Maroto
- Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (CIEMAT), Madrid, 28040, Spain.
| | - S García-Alonso
- Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (CIEMAT), Madrid, 28040, Spain
| | - E Rojas
- Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (CIEMAT), Madrid, 28040, Spain
| | - D Sanz
- Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (CIEMAT), Madrid, 28040, Spain
| | - I Ibarra
- Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (CIEMAT), Madrid, 28040, Spain
| | - R Pérez-Pastor
- Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (CIEMAT), Madrid, 28040, Spain
| | - M Pujadas
- Centro de Investigaciones Energéticas Medioambientales y Tecnológicas (CIEMAT), Madrid, 28040, Spain
| | - D Hormigo
- Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial (INTA), Torrejón de Ardoz, 28850, Spain
| | - J Sánchez
- Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial (INTA), Torrejón de Ardoz, 28850, Spain
| | - P M Moreno
- Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial (INTA), Torrejón de Ardoz, 28850, Spain
| | - M Sánchez
- Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial (INTA), Torrejón de Ardoz, 28850, Spain
| | - D Kılıc
- DEES and University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - P I Williams
- DEES and University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK; NCAS, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
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Pan X, Qin P, Liu R, Yu W. Molecular mechanism of coating carbon black nanoparticles with polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons on the binding to serum albumin and the related cytotoxicity. J Mol Liq 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2022.119013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Bendtsen KM, Bengtsen E, Saber AT, Vogel U. A review of health effects associated with exposure to jet engine emissions in and around airports. Environ Health 2021; 20:10. [PMID: 33549096 PMCID: PMC7866671 DOI: 10.1186/s12940-020-00690-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Airport personnel are at risk of occupational exposure to jet engine emissions, which similarly to diesel exhaust emissions include volatile organic compounds and particulate matter consisting of an inorganic carbon core with associated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and metals. Diesel exhaust is classified as carcinogenic and the particulate fraction has in itself been linked to several adverse health effects including cancer. METHOD In this review, we summarize the available scientific literature covering human health effects of exposure to airport emissions, both in occupational settings and for residents living close to airports. We also report the findings from the limited scientific mechanistic studies of jet engine emissions in animal and cell models. RESULTS Jet engine emissions contain large amounts of nano-sized particles, which are particularly prone to reach the lower airways upon inhalation. Size of particles and emission levels depend on type of aircraft, engine conditions, and fuel type, as well as on operation modes. Exposure to jet engine emissions is reported to be associated with biomarkers of exposure as well as biomarkers of effect among airport personnel, especially in ground-support functions. Proximity to running jet engines or to the airport as such for residential areas is associated with increased exposure and with increased risk of disease, increased hospital admissions and self-reported lung symptoms. CONCLUSION We conclude that though the literature is scarce and with low consistency in methods and measured biomarkers, there is evidence that jet engine emissions have physicochemical properties similar to diesel exhaust particles, and that exposure to jet engine emissions is associated with similar adverse health effects as exposure to diesel exhaust particles and other traffic emissions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja M. Bendtsen
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Lersø Parkallé 105, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Elizabeth Bengtsen
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Lersø Parkallé 105, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Anne T. Saber
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Lersø Parkallé 105, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Ulla Vogel
- National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Lersø Parkallé 105, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, DK-2800 Kgs Lyngby, Denmark
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Wing SE, Larson TV, Hudda N, Boonyarattaphan S, Fruin S, Ritz B. Preterm Birth among Infants Exposed to in Utero Ultrafine Particles from Aircraft Emissions. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2020; 128:47002. [PMID: 32238012 PMCID: PMC7228090 DOI: 10.1289/ehp5732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2019] [Revised: 02/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Ambient air pollution is a known risk factor for adverse birth outcomes, but the role of ultrafine particles (UFPs) is not well understood. Aircraft-origin UFPs adversely affect air quality over large residential areas downwind of airports, but their reproductive health burden remains uninvestigated. OBJECTIVES This analysis evaluated whether UFPs from jet aircraft emissions are associated with increased rates of preterm birth (PTB) among pregnant mothers living downwind of Los Angeles International Airport (LAX). METHODS This population-based study used birth records, provided by the California Department of Public Health, to ascertain birth outcomes and a novel, validated geospatial UFP dispersion model approach to estimate in utero exposures. All mothers who gave birth from 2008 to 2016 while living within 15km of LAX were included in this analysis (N=174,186; including 15,134 PTBs). RESULTS In utero exposure to aircraft-origin UFPs was positively associated with PTB. The odds ratio (OR) per interquartile range (IQR) increase [9,200 particles per cubic centimeter (cc)] relative UFP exposure was 1.04 [95% confidence interval (CI): 1.02, 1.06]. When comparing the fourth quartile of UFP exposure to the first quartile, the OR for PTB was 1.14 (95% CI: 1.08, 1.20), adjusting for maternal demographic characteristics, exposure to traffic-related air pollution, and airport-related noise. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that emissions from aircraft play an etiologic role in PTBs, independent of noise and traffic-related air pollution exposures. These findings are of public health concern because UFP exposures downwind of airfields are common and may affect large, densely populated residential areas. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP5732.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam E. Wing
- Department of Epidemiology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Timothy V. Larson
- Departments of Civil & Environmental Engineering and Occupational & Environmental Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Neelakshi Hudda
- Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Sarunporn Boonyarattaphan
- Departments of Civil & Environmental Engineering and Occupational & Environmental Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Scott Fruin
- Division of Environmental Health, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Beate Ritz
- Department of Epidemiology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
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Kilic D, Brem BT, Klein F, El-Haddad I, Durdina L, Rindlisbacher T, Setyan A, Huang R, Wang J, Slowik JG, Baltensperger U, Prevot ASH. Characterization of Gas-Phase Organics Using Proton Transfer Reaction Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry: Aircraft Turbine Engines. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:3621-3629. [PMID: 28304157 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b04077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Nonmethane organic gas emissions (NMOGs) from in-service aircraft turbine engines were investigated using a proton transfer reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometer (PTR-ToF-MS) at an engine test facility at Zurich Airport, Switzerland. Experiments consisted of 60 exhaust samples for seven engine types (used in commercial aviation) from two manufacturers at thrust levels ranging from idle to takeoff. Emission indices (EIs) for more than 200 NMOGs were quantified, and the functional group fractions (including acids, carbonyls, aromatics, and aliphatics) were calculated to characterize the exhaust chemical composition at different engine operation modes. Total NMOG emissions were highest at idling with an average EI of 7.8 g/kg fuel and were a factor of ∼40 lower at takeoff thrust. The relative contribution of pure hydrocarbons (particularly aromatics and aliphatics) of the engine exhaust decreased with increasing thrust while the fraction of oxidized compounds, for example, acids and carbonyls increased. Exhaust chemical composition at idle was also affected by engine technology. Older engines emitted a higher fraction of nonoxidized NMOGs compared to newer ones. Idling conditions dominated ground level organic gas emissions. Based on the EI determined here, we estimate that reducing idle emissions could substantially improve air quality near airports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dogushan Kilic
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute , 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin T Brem
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, ETH Zurich , 8093, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Felix Klein
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute , 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Imad El-Haddad
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute , 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Lukas Durdina
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, ETH Zurich , 8093, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Ari Setyan
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, ETH Zurich , 8093, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Rujin Huang
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute , 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Jing Wang
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, ETH Zurich , 8093, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jay G Slowik
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute , 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Urs Baltensperger
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute , 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Andre S H Prevot
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute , 5232 Villigen, Switzerland
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Riley EA, Gould T, Hartin K, Fruin SA, Simpson CD, Yost MG, Larson T. Ultrafine particle size as a tracer for aircraft turbine emissions. ATMOSPHERIC ENVIRONMENT (OXFORD, ENGLAND : 1994) 2016; 139:20-29. [PMID: 27795692 PMCID: PMC5082839 DOI: 10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Ultrafine particle number (UFPN) and size distributions, black carbon, and nitrogen dioxide concentrations were measured downwind of two of the busiest airports in the world, Los Angeles International Airport (LAX) and Hartsfield-Jackson International Airport (ATL - Atlanta, GA) using a mobile monitoring platform. Transects were located between 5 km and 10 km from the ATL and LAX airports. In addition, measurements were taken at 43 additional urban neighborhood locations in each city and on freeways. We found a 3-5 fold increase in UFPN concentrations in transects under the landing approach path to both airports relative to surrounding urban areas with similar ground traffic characteristics. The latter UFPN concentrations measured were distinct in size distributional properties from both freeways and across urban neighborhoods, clearly indicating different sources. Elevated concentrations of Black Carbon (BC) and NO2 were also observed on airport transects, and the corresponding pattern of elevated BC was consistent with the observed excess UFPN concentrations relative to other urban locations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin A. Riley
- University of Washington Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, Box 357234, Seattle, WA, 98198. +1 (206) 543-3222
| | - Timothy Gould
- University of Washington Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Box 352700 Seattle, WA, 98198. +1 (206) 543-6815
| | - Kris Hartin
- University of Washington Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, Box 357234, Seattle, WA, 98198. +1 (206) 543-3222
| | - Scott A. Fruin
- University of Southern California, Keck School of Medicine. SSB 225F, MC 9237, 2001 N Soto Street, Los Angeles, CA 90032. +1 (323) 442-2870
| | - Christopher D. Simpson
- University of Washington Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, Box 357234, Seattle, WA, 98198. +1 (206) 543-3222
| | - Michael G. Yost
- University of Washington Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, Box 357234, Seattle, WA, 98198. +1 (206) 543-3222
| | - Timothy Larson
- University of Washington Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Box 352700 Seattle, WA, 98198. +1 (206) 543-6815
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Lai CH, Yan TY. Characteristics and aerosol size distributions of metal-containing paint particles at a spray-painting workplace. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra20179b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The health effects of metal-containing paint-particles at various particle-size distributions on workers in a spray-painting workplace at an industrial ventilation equipment manufacturing plant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chia-Hsiang Lai
- Department of Safety Health and Environmental Engineering
- Central Taiwan University of Science and Technology
- Taichung
- Republic of China
| | - Ting-Yu Yan
- Institute of Safety Health and Environmental Engineering
- Central Taiwan University of Science and Technology
- Taichung
- Republic of China
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Chuang KY, Lai CH, Peng YP, Yen TY. Characteristics of particle-bound polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) in atmosphere used in carbon black feeding process at a tire manufacturing plant. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 22:19451-19460. [PMID: 26257121 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-015-5135-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Accepted: 07/29/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) were estimated for different particle size distributions in a carbon black feeding process at a tire manufacturing plant on 15 days in March and April of 2014. A total of 75 integrated air samples were collected using a micro-orifice uniform deposition impactor (MOUDI). Particle-bound PCDD/Fs were analyzed using a high-resolution gas chromatograph/high-resolution mass spectrometer (HRGC/HRMS). Concentrations of thoracic particles and total particles produced in the carbon black feeding process of a tire manufacturing plant were measured in ranges of 0.19-2.61 and 0.28-4.22 mg/m(3), respectively. On all sampling days, the three most abundant species of PCDD/Fs were OCDD, 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDF, and OCDF. The mean concentrations of total PCDD/Fs were 0.74-6.83 pg/m(3) within five particle size ranges. Total I-TEQ in particulate matter (PM)<1.0 was 2.2 and 3.2 times higher than those in PM>18 and PM2.5-10, respectively. However, the total I-TEQ of thoracic PM contributed approximately 74 % of the total I-TEQ of total PM. The assessment of health risk indicates that exposure to fractions of thoracic PM by inhalation poses a significant cancer risk (>10(-6)).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kuen-Yuan Chuang
- Department of Safety Health and Environmental Engineering, Central Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taichung, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Chia-Hsiang Lai
- Department of Safety Health and Environmental Engineering, Central Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taichung, Taiwan, Republic of China.
| | - Yen-Ping Peng
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tunghai University, Taichung, Taiwan, Republic of China
| | - Ting-Yu Yen
- Institute of Safety Health and Environmental Engineering, Central Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taichung, Taiwan, Republic of China
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