Characterization and source identification of trace elements in airborne particulates at urban and suburban atmospheres of Tabriz, Iran

PAHs pollution in the outdoor air of areas with various land uses in the industrial city of Iran: distribution, source apportionment, and risk assessment

Shahryar city regions with various land uses had their outdoor air concentrations of PM_2.5-bound PAHs determined. Totally, 32 samples were taken - eight samples from the industrial region air (IS), eight samples from the high-traffic urban regions air (HTS), eight samples from the air of commercial regions (CS), and eight samples from residential areas (RS), which were analyzed by GC-MS. According to the study's findings, in the outdoor air of IS, HTS, CS, and RS, there were mean ƩPAHs concentrations of 23.25 ± 20.22, 38.88 ± 26.53, 6.97 ± 4.26, and 4.48 ± 3.13 ng/m³, respectively. As comparison to CS and RS, mean concentration of ƩPAHs in samples from HTS and IS was substantially greater (p < 0.05). Using the Unmix.6 receptor model, sources of PAHs in the air of Shahryar were allocated. The model's results show that 42% of PAHs come from diesel vehicles and industrial activities, 36% from traffic and other transportation sources, and 22% from heating sources and coal burning. The carcinogenicity suffering resulting from exposure to PAHs was as follows: This value for children of the ingestion, inhalation pathways and dermal contact is (1.90 × 10^-6-1.38 × 10^-4), (5.5 × 10^-11-2.67 × 10^-9) and (2.36 × 10^-6-1.72 × 10^-4), respectively. Also, for adults were (1.47 × 10^-6 - 1.07 × 10^-4), (1.14 × 10^-10 - 5.27 × 10^-9) and (3.68 × 10^-6- 2.87 × 10^-4), respectively. In general, the analyzed region's carcinogenicity risk estimates fell within the range of acceptable limit.

Source apportionment, identification and characterization, and emission inventory of ambient particulate matter in 22 Eastern Mediterranean Region countries: A systematic review and recommendations for good practice

Little is known about the main sources of ambient particulate matter (PM) in the 22 Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR) countries. We designed this study to systematically review all published and unpublished source apportionment (SA), identification and characterization studies as well as emission inventories in the EMR. Of 440 articles identified, 82 (11 emission inventory ones) met our inclusion criteria for final analyses. Of 22 EMR countries, Iran with 30 articles had the highest number of studies on source specific PM followed by Pakistan (n = 15 articles) and Saudi Arabia (n = 8 papers). By contrast, there were no studies in Afghanistan, Bahrain, Djibouti, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, Syria, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen. Approximately 72% of studies (51) were published within a span of 2015-2021.48 studies identified the sources of PM_2.5 and its constituents. Positive matrix factorization (PMF), principal component analysis (PCA) and chemical mass balance (CMB) were the most common approaches to identify the source contributions of ambient PM. Both secondary aerosols and dust, with 12-51% and 8-80% (33% and 30% for all EMR countries, on average) had the greatest contributions in ambient PM_2.5. The remaining sources for ambient PM_2.5, including mixed sources (traffic, industry and residential (TIR)), traffic, industries, biomass burning, and sea salt were in the range of approximately 4-69%, 4-49%, 1-53%, 7-25% and 3-29%, respectively. For PM₁₀, the most dominant source was dust with 7-95% (49% for all EMR countries, on average). The limited number of SA studies in the EMR countries (one study per approximately 9.6 million people) in comparison to Europe and North America (1 study per 4.3 and 2.1 million people respectively) can be augmented by future studies that will provide a better understanding of emission sources in the urban environment.

Monitoring, Source Identification and Environmental Risk of Potentially Toxic Elements of Dust in Isfahan Province, Central Iran

The aim of this study was to identify potentially toxic elements (PTEs) associated with airborne particulate matters (PMs) and their source identification and environmental risk in Isfahan Province, central Iran. Dust samples were collected from various locations included three urban and four rural locations. Results revealed the eastern part of the region as the main source of dust and showed that the highest monthly atmospheric dust deposition was in July (5.53 g m^-2). The mean concentrations of Zn, Pb, Cu and Cd were respectively 279, 63, 49 and 0.5 mg kg^-1 in dust samples, whereas Cd showed the highest ecological risk index. Dust samples of urban areas showed considerable and very high levels of pollution indices for Pb and Zn, respectively. Among the metals, Zn showed the highest enrichment factor (>5), mainly due to anthropogenic sources. The comprehensive ecological risk index of PTEs revealed the moderate and considerable risk of Isfahan and Najafabad cities, respectively.

Characterization of Particulate Matter Species in an Area Impacted by Aggregate and Limestone Mining North of San Antonio, TX, USA

Aggregate and limestone mining in San Antonio’s Bexar and Comal counties in Texas, USA, has caused considerable health concerns as of late. Aggregate mining actions can result in localized air quality issues in any neighborhood. Furthermore, heavy truck traffic, hauling, and transportation of the mined material contribute to pollution. In this research, PM species were sampled at four locations north of the San Antonio city limits. The data were collected using a TSI Air Quality Sampler that sampled PM1, PM2.5, PM4, PM10, wind speed, wind direction, temperature, and relative humidity. Continuous data with 1 min averages were recorded during the study period from August to September 2019. The instrument was stationed at every location for a period of 7 days each. The four locations were a ranch, an open field, a residential compound, and an elementary school. PM1 and PM2.5 concentration levels were lower compared to PM10 concentrations at all four studied sites. Our results suggest that PM concentrations are primarily impacted by mining activities. PM species were highest at the residential compound due to its proximity to an active mining area, resulting in deleterious health effects for neighbors living in the vicinity of the sampled site.

Determination and assessment of elemental concentration in the atmospheric particulate matter: a comprehensive review

The elemental concentrations of atmospheric particulate matter (PM) have a detrimental effect on human health in which some elemental species have carcinogenic nature. In India, significant variations have found in the practices adapted from sampling to analysis for the determination and assessment of the elemental concentration in PM. Therefore, Indian studies (2011-2020) on the related domain are summarized to impart consistency in the field and laboratory practices. Further, a comparative analysis with other countries has also been mentioned in the relevant sections to evaluate its likeness with Indian studies. To prepare this study, literature has been procured from reputed journals. Subsequently, each step from sampling to analysis has thoroughly discussed with quality assurance and control (QA/QC) compliance. In addition, a framework has been proposed that showed field and laboratory analysis in an organized manner. Consequently, this study will provide benefit to novice researcher and improve their understanding about the related subject. Also, it will assist other peoples/bodies in framing the necessary decisions to carry out this study.

Acute responses of airway oxidative stress, inflammation, and hemodynamic markers to ambient PM2.5 and their trace metal contents among healthy adolescences: A panel study in highly polluted versus low polluted regions

Particulate air pollutants are known contributors to global cardiorespiratory mortality through several pathways. We examined the effects of varied exposure to PM_2.5 and trace metals on biological markers of airway inflammation, oxidative stress, and hemodynamic function of young individuals living in two different exposure settings. We enrolled and followed a panel of 97 healthy nonsmoking participants aged 15-18 years living in a highly polluted metropolitan city of Tabriz (TBZ) and a much less polluted semi-urban town of Hadishahr (HDS). For five consecutive months, the subjects were examined by a physician, and fractional exhaled nitric oxide levels (FE_NO) were measured. Samples of exhaled breath condensation (EBC) were obtained for measuring interleukin 6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), and total nitric oxide (NO_x). We measured daily outdoor PM_2.5 mass concentration in a fixed station in each location for all this period. The PM-metal content was analyzed by ICP-MS. The linear mixed-effects regression models were applied for data analysis. The averages of PM_2.5 mass and total metals in TBZ were nearly two and four times higher than in HDS, respectively. In TBZ, an increased IQR of PM_2.5 mass during 0-5 days was -correlated with a significant rise in diastolic blood pressure, heart rate, TNF-α, FE_NO, and NO_x and reduction of IL-6. Moreover, exposure to low PM_2.5 concentration is significantly -correlated with an elevation in diastolic blood pressure in HDS. We also observed that exposure to metal constituents in the highly polluted region is correlated with increased TNF-α and IL-6 with 131.80% (95% CI: 56.01, 244.39) and 47.51% (95% CI: 33.01, 62.05) per IQR of Hg, respectively. This study suggests that exposure to ambient PM_2.5 and their metal contents in highly polluted areas may incite significant changes in airway inflammation, oxidative stress, and hemodynamic parameters in healthy subjects.

Physicochemical Properties of Indoor and Outdoor Particulate Matter 2.5 in Selected Residential Areas near a Ferromanganese Smelter

Particulate matter (PM) of different sizes and elemental composition is a leading contributor to indoor and outdoor air pollution in residential areas. We sought to investigate similarities between indoor and outdoor PM_2.5 in three residential areas near a ferromanganese smelter in Meyerton to apportion the emission source(s). Indoor and outdoor PM_2.5 samples were collected concurrently, using GilAir300 plus samplers, at a flow rate of 2.75 L/min. PM_2.5 was collected on polycarbonate membrane filters housed in 37 mm cassettes coupled with PM_2.5 cyclones. Scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive spectroscopy was used to study the morphology, and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy was used to analyse the elemental composition of the PM_2.5. Mean indoor and outdoor PM_2.5 mass concentrations were 10.99 and 24.95 µg/m³, respectively. Mean outdoor mass concentration was 2.27-fold higher than the indoor concentration. Indoor samples consisted of irregular and agglomerated particles, ranging from 0.09 to 1.06 µm, whereas outdoor samples consisted of irregular and spherical particles, ranging from 0.10 to 0.70 µm. Indoor and outdoor PM_2.5 were dominated by manganese, silicon, and iron, however, outdoor PM_2.5 had the highest concentration of all elements. The ferromanganese smelter was identified as the potential main contributing source of PM_2.5 of different physicochemical properties.

Occurrence, spatial distribution, seasonal variations, potential sources, and inhalation-based health risk assessment of organic/inorganic pollutants in ambient air of Tehran

The present study evaluated the concentrations, spatial distribution, seasonal variations, potential sources, and risk assessment of organic/inorganic pollutants in ambient air of Tehran city. Totally, 180 air samples were taken from 9 sampling stations from March 2018 to March 2019 and were analyzed to determine the concentrations of organic pollutants (BTEX compounds and PM_2.5-bound PAHs) plus inorganic pollutants (PM_2.5-bound metals and asbestos fibers). The results revealed that the mean concentrations of ∑ PAHs, BTEX, ∑ heavy metals, and asbestos fibers were 5.34 ng/m³, 60.55 µg/m³, 8585.12 ng/m³, and 4.13 fiber/ml in the cold season, respectively, and 3.88 ng/m³, 33.86 µg/m³, 5682.61 ng/m³, and 3.21 fiber/ml in the warm season, respectively. Source apportionment of emission of the air pollutants showed that PAHs are emitted from diesel vehicles and industrial activities. BTEX and asbestos are also released mainly by vehicles. The results of the inhalation-based risk assessment indicated that the carcinogenic risk of PAHs, BTEX, and asbestos exceeded the recommended limit by The US environmental protection agency (US EPA) and WHO (1 × 10^-4). The risk of carcinogenesis of heavy metal of lead and chromium also exceeded the recommended limit. Thus, proper management strategies are required to control the concentration of these pollutants in Tehran's ambient air in order to maintain the health of Tehran's citizens.

Blood contamination of the pharmaceutical staff by irinotecan and its two major metabolites inside and outside a compounding unit

BACKGROUND

Caregivers in healthcare settings are exposed to a risk of antineoplastic drug contamination which can lead to adverse health effects. Biological monitoring is necessary to estimate the actual level of exposure of these workers. This study was conducted with the aim of assessing blood contamination levels by irinotecan and its metabolites of pharmaceutical staff operating inside and outside a compounding unit.

METHODS

The study took place within the pharmaceutical unit of a French comprehensive cancer centre. Blood samples were collected from the pharmacy workers operating inside and outside the compounding unit, and analysed by UHPLC-MS/MS. Plasma and red blood cell irinotecan and its metabolites (SN-38; APC) were determined with a validated analytical method detection test.

RESULTS

A total of 17/78 (21.8%) plasma and red blood cell-based assays were found to be contaminated among staff. Overall, the total number of positive assays was significantly higher for staff members working outside the compounding unit than for workers working inside it (P = 0.022), with respectively 5/42 (11.9%) and 12/36 (33.3%) positive assays. For plasma dosages, the "outside" group had a significantly higher number of positive assays (P = 0.014). For red blood cell-based assays, no significant difference was found (P = 0.309).

CONCLUSIONS

This study reveals that pharmaceutical staff serving in health care settings are exposed to a risk of antineoplastic drug contamination, not only inside the compounding room but also in adjacent rooms. The results would help to raise awareness and potentially establish protective measures for caregivers working in areas close to the compounding room as well.

Influence of start-up phase of an incinerator on inorganic composition and lead isotope ratios of the atmospheric PM10

A municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI) was installed in a peripheral area of the city of Turin. In this study, we evaluated the contribution of this plant to the massive concentration of PM₁₀, to its chemical composition and to the distribution of the lead isotopes during the start-up phase.We assessed the inorganic composition of PM₁₀ collected in the vicinity of the Turin incinerator by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES), magnetic sector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (SF-ICP-MS) and ion chromatography (IC). The lead isotope ratios in PM₁₀ samples were determined by SF-ICP-MS by a method developed and optimized using experimental design approach. Element trends and data chemometric treatment evidence that the vehicular traffic, increased in this area due to the opening of the MSWI plant, and, to a lesser degree, the direct incinerator emissions influence As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ba, Mo, Pb, Sn and Zn concentrations. As a whole, however, the element concentrations in PM₁₀ and the Enrichment Factors (EFs) were comparable with the values reported for other urban sites and target pollutant concentrations of MSWI emissions, namely Cd, Cr, Cu and Pb, were lower than in PM₁₀ emitted from older MSWIs. This confirms that incinerators of new installation have a lower impact on atmospheric PM₁₀ composition thanks to stricter current legislation and up-to-date technologies. The lead isotope ratios investigation allowed to distinguish the diverse sources (crustal, vehicular traffic and MSWI) that influence lead concentration in PM₁₀ collected near incinerator during start-up phase.

Characterization of ambient PM1 at a suburban site of Agra: chemical composition, sources, health risk and potential cytotoxicity

The present study was conducted at a University campus of Agra to determine concentrations of crustal and trace elements in submicron mode (PM₁) particles to reveal sources and detrimental effects of PM₁-bound metals (Cr, Cd, Mn, Zn, As, Co, Pb, Cu and Ni) in samples collected in the foggy (1 December 2016-17 January 2017) and non-foggy periods (1 April 2016-30 June 2016). Samples were collected twice a week on preweighed quartz fibre filters (QM-A 47 mm) for 24 h using Envirotech APM 577 (flow rate 10 l min^-1). Mass concentration of PM₁ was 135.0 ± 28.2 and 54.0 ± 18.5 µg/m³ during foggy and non-foggy period, respectively; crustal and trace elements were 13 and 4% during foggy and 11 and 3% in the non-foggy period. Source identification by PCA (principal component analysis) suggested that biomass burning and coal combustion was the prominent sources in foggy period followed by resuspended soil dust, industrial and vehicular emission, whereas in non-foggy period resuspended soil dust was dominant followed by biomass burning and coal combustion, industrial and vehicular emissions. In both episodes, Mn has the highest Hq (hazard quotient) value and Cr has the highest IlcR (Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk) value for both adults and children. In vitro cytotoxicity impact on macrophage (J774) cells was also tested using MTT assay which revealed decreasing cell viability with increasing particle mass.

Characterization, concentration and risk assessment of airborne particles using car engine air filter (case study: Tehran metropolis)

Atmospheric elements released into the atmosphere can enter the human body through inhalation, ingestion and dermal contact and are then deposited in the body. Trace elements have potential risks to human health. For this purpose, the particulate matter accumulated by car air filters (CAFs) was studied. The morphology and distribution of particle size were examined using scanning electron microscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The concentration of elements in CAFs and CAF-estimated air for 30 elements in Tehran, Iran, was analyzed in winter and summer, from February to July 2017. Samples were determined by inductively coupled mass plasma spectrometry. The most abundantly detected elements in both CAFs and air in both seasons were Ca, Mg, Na and Fe. The shape of the particles was mostly irregular and spherical. Most of the particles were between 0.5 and 1.0 µm. The carcinogenic risks of inhalation exposure to Cr and Co in winter and summer were higher than the acceptable level (< 1 × 10^-4) for children and adults. The carcinogenic risks of As and Cr in both seasons were higher than 1 × 10^-4 for children and adults via dermal contact. Also, the carcinogenic risks of Cr in both seasons of ingestion exposure were higher than 1.00E-04 for children and adults. The integrated noncarcinogenic risks of all trace elements were higher than the safe level (= 1) for children and adults in both seasons.

Trace element characterization of fine particulate matter and assessment of associated health risk in mining area, transportation routes and institutional area of Dhanbad, India

Samples of PM_2.5 were collected on PTFE filters at 11 monitoring stations in Dhanbad, India, from March, 2014, to February, 2015, for the quantification of 10 PM_2.5-bound trace elements by using ICP-OES, source apportionment by using principal component analysis and health risks posed by PM_2.5-bound trace elements by using health risk assessment model developed by US EPA. The average annual PM_2.5 concentration (149 ± 66 µg/m³) exceeded the national ambient air quality standards by factor of 3.7, US EPA national ambient air quality standards by factor of 10 and WHO air quality guidelines by factor of 15. The sum total of average annual concentration of all PM_2.5-bound trace elements was found to be 3.206 µg/m³ with maximum concentrations of Fe (61%), Zn (21%) and Pb (11%). Coal mining, coal combustion, vehicular emission, tyre and brake wear and re-suspension of road dust were identified as dominant sources of PM_2.5-bound trace elements from the results of correlation and chemometric analysis. The significantly high HQ values posed by PM_2.5-bound Co and Ni and intensification of HI values (15.7, 10.8 and 8.54 in mining area, transportation routes and institutional area, respectively) for multielemental exposure indicate high potential of non-carcinogenic health risk associated with inhalation exposure. The carcinogenic health risk due to multielemental exposure in mining area (2.27 × 10^-4) and transportation routes (1.57 × 10^-4) for adults were significantly higher than threshold value indicating the vulnerability of adults toward inhalation-induced carcinogenic risk posed by PM_2.5-bound trace elements.

Concentration, sources and human health risk of heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons bound PM2.5 ambient air, Tehran, Iran

The exposure to heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) bound to particulate matter 2.5 (PM_2.5) ambient air can result in some adverse health effect. In the current study, PM_2.5 ambient air of Tehran metropolitan, Iran, was characterized by the aid of scanning electron microscope and energy-dispersive X-ray techniques. Also, the human health risk of heavy metals and PAHs bound PM_2.5 for adults and children was assessed using the Monte Carlo simulation method. According to our findings, a size range of 0.97-2.46 μm with an average diameter of 1.56 μm for PM_2.5 was noted. The average concentration of PM_2.5 in ambient air (8.29E+04 ± 2.94E+04 ng m^-3) significantly (p < 0.05) was suppressed the national (2.50E+04 ng m^-3), World Health Organization (2.50E+04 ng m^-3) and Environmental Protection Agency (3.50E+04 ng m^-3) standard limits. The rank order of heavy metals bound PM_2.5 was determined as Al > Cu > Cd > Cr > Pb > Ni > Fe > Mn. The maximum concentration among 16 PAHs compounds investigated was correlated with Phenanthrene. Considering the principal component analysis, the main source of heavy metals (Ni, Pb and Cr) is vehicle combustion. Moreover, the rank order of exposure pathways based on their health risk was ingestion > inhalation > dermal contact. Moreover, the significant health risks for Tehran residents due to heavy metals bound PM_2.5 [target hazard quotient > 1; carcinogenic risk > 1.00E-06)] were noted based on the health risk assessment. Excessive carcinogenic risk (ECR) of PAHs bound PM_2.5 was 4.16E-07 that demonstrated that there is no considerable risk (ECR < 1.00E-06).

Physicochemical characterization of ambient PM2.5 in Tehran air and its potential cytotoxicity in human lung epithelial cells (A549)

As air pollution is a major problem in Tehran, this study aimed to investigate the physicochemical characterization of the water-soluble and organic contents of ambient PM_2.5 in Tehran and determine its in vitro toxicological impact on human lung epithelial cells (A549). A total of 11 sampling stations were selected, including three categories: traffic, urban, and suburban. All sampling was carried out in the spring and summer of 2015. Ion chromatography (IC), inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICP-AES), and GC-MS were used to analyze ionic compounds, heavy metals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), respectively, and an ELISA reader was used for cytotoxicity analysis. The most prevalent ionic species found for all three categories was SO₄^2-. PAH concentrations were 43.45±32.71, 50.51±37.27, and 29.13±33.29ng/m³ for traffic, urban, and suburban stations, respectively. For all sampling stations, Al and Fe had the highest values among the investigated heavy metals. Cell viability measurements, carried out using the MTT assay, showed that all three categories of samples cause cytotoxicity, although the urban station samples showed higher cytotoxicity than those from the other stations (p˂0.05). Based on the results of the present study, organic compounds and insoluble particles could be the main causes of cytotoxicity.