Cigarette butt littering consequences: a study of pollution rate on beaches and urban environments

The effect of climatic variables and techno-structural factors on the water pollution caused by nicotine leakage from littered cigarette butts

Nicotine is one of the main pollutants in cigarette smoke that trapped in the filter. Nicotine leakage from cigarette butts is one of the concerns associated with this hazardous waste. In this study, the concentration of nicotine leaked from cigarette butts into the urban environment was investigated under the influence of three parameters including rainfall, density, and the durability of the littered cigarette butt. The leakage of nicotine into the environment was estimated in six scenarios based on the difference in the durability of cigarette butts in the urban environment and the humidity ratio. The results showed that the density of littered cigarette butts was 0.0019-0.294 number/m2. The density of littered cigarette butts in residential land-use was 52.38% lower than commercial land-use. Nicotine leakage from cigarette butts in commercial, residential, and recreational land-uses was 1.1, 0.484, and .0065 mg/m2, respectively. In the studied scenarios, in the best and worst case, 335,070 and 481,950 gr/year of nicotine will leak from the cigarette butt into the water resources. Considering that cigarette butts are a serious source of toxins including nicotine to the environment, control measures are necessary to reduce its density in the urban environment.

Study of the impact of structural factors and cleaning efficiency in reducing hazardous litter density and its related pollution in urban environment

Cigarette filter is the most common hazardous litter that contains many pollutants including PAHs. The durability of this litter in the urban environment has an important effect on the rate of pollutant leakage. In this study, the leakage rate of PAHs from the littered cigarette filters was estimated by considering the affecting parameters on their durability in the urban environment. The results showed that the density of littered cigarette filters in the studied locations was 0.00048-0.13563 g/m2. The maximum spatial variation of the littered cigarette filter was 225 times. The average leakage of the total studied PAHs was estimated to be 2.048 µg/10 m2. The impact of structural factors and efficiency of urban cleaning in the estimated leakage was at most 2.4 times. It is necessary to change the behavior of citizens in littering the cigarette filter, considering its durability in the urban environment, to reduce the environmental and health consequences caused by the leakage of PAHs.

A review on cigarette butts: Environmental abundance, characterization, and toxic pollutants released into water from cigarette butts

Every year, trillions of cigarette butts (CBs) are discarded into the environment. CBs are frequently found on beaches and in urban areas worldwide due to their high resistance to physical and biological degradation. Components of CBs, such as heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), cellulose acetate fibers (microplastics), nicotine, aromatic amines, and BTEX (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene), are released into aquatic environments. Harmful components released into water from CBs cause both water pollution and toxic effects on different aquatic organisms. In the first part of this review, studies investigating the density of CBs in different environments were reviewed. In the second part, the results of studies investigating the characteristics of cigarette filters using characterization techniques were reviewed. Then, studies on heavy metals, PAHs, microplastics (microfibers), nicotine, aromatic amines and BTEX released into water from CBs were reviewed, and factors affecting the types, amounts and release conditions of compounds (pollutants) released into water from CBs were discussed. In the last section, taking into account the studies carried out to date, deficiencies in the research on pollutants released into water from CBs were identified and recommendations were made for future studies. This review highlights the environmental abundance of CBs, the characterization results of CB filters, and the release into water of some substances in CBs that are pollutants for the aquatic environment. This review may serve as a guide to elucidate the environmental abundance of CBs, the characteristics of CBs/filters, and the concentration in water of some pollutants released into water from CBs.

Exploring cigarette butts pollution in Saint Martin Island: A marine protected area

Saint Martin Island (SMI), the only coral island in Bangladesh, is located in the Bay of Bengal and has been identified as a marine protected area (MPA). Littering cigarette butts (CBs) waste in an ecologically sensitive environment can have numerous adverse effects. The purpose of this research is to investigate the abundance and density of CBs in SMI and to assess the pollution status using the Cigarette Butt Pollution Index (CBPI). This study is conducted based on the visual survey method in the three types of land use zones of SMI. During the peak season, the investigation was carried out from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. in December 2023. A total of 4481 CBs item were counted, and the density ranged from 0.37 to 1.76 m-2 with an average value of 0.99 m-2 across 12 sampling campaigns. The highest density was observed at service zones, and the fishing zones had the lowest density. The calculated CBPI values revealed that 75 % of the sampling stations were in the "severe pollution" while 25 % were classified as "high pollution" status, underscoring the prevalence of hazardous CBs across most areas of SMI. To tackle these issues requires regulatory measures, public awareness initiatives, and community involvement. Effective waste management and eco-friendly product promotion can help reduce CBs pollution risks in marine protected islands.

The fate of leaked heavy metals in the urban environment under different persistence and precipitation scenarios

The use of tobacco will lead to the littering of a large number of filters, and the leakage of pollutants from them into the urban environment is a serious concern. The aim of this study was to analyze the leakage of heavy metals from filter and estimate the annual concentration of pollution leakage in different waste routes and different climatic conditions. The results showed that the highest and lowest density of filter in the studied urban environment were 0.51 and 0.01 number/m2, respectively. According to the estimated annual production of 306 million cigarette butts in the studied area, the leakage of the studied metals was estimated to be 401 g. The share of copper, chromium, and cadmium from the total leakage was 67%, 8.3%, and 1.88%, respectively. The leakage of studied metals in rainy conditions was 2.86 times more than sunny conditions. In different scenarios, the minimum and maximum annual leakage of metals were estimated 23,043 and 350,419 mg/year, respectively. Filters are a little but important source of heavy metal emission into the urban environment, the amount of pollution from which is affected by the consumers' behavior and the efficiency of the urban cleaning system. Education on the correct disposal of filters and increasing the efficiency of the urban cleaning system will lead to a reduction in pollution caused by tobacco consumption.

Abundance and distribution of marine litter on the beaches of Okinawa Island, Japan

This study evaluated the distribution and abundance of marine litter on 30 beaches around Okinawa Island, Japan. Beach quality indices and multivariate statistical analyses were used to assess the quality of the beaches and their pollution patterns. A total of 11,626 items weighing 513.49 kg with an average density of 0.13 ± 0.10 items/m2 were collected. Litter was dominated by plastics (81.72 %), broken glass (8.38 %), and cigarette butts (7.44 %), and 74.05 % of total litter was from land-based sources. Single-use plastics (SUPs) were present in all surveyed beaches and made up 30.54 % of the total litter. The clean coast index (CCI), plastic abundance index (PAI), and hazardous index (HI) were between 0.1 and 7.6, 0.1-4.0 and 0.01-1.42, respectively, indicating low to moderate levels of pollution of Okinawan beaches. This study should aid in the formation of strategies to deal with marine litter in Okinawa, other areas of Japan and the Asia-Pacific region.

Quality variations of leachate resulting from cigarette filter recycling as a challenge for its management

Recycling is known as a solution for cigarette filter management, but this may cause the release of trapped pollutants in it. Cigarette smoke toxins and chemicals that trapped in the cigarette filter can accumulate in the recycling leachate. In this study, littered cigarette filters and freshly smoked cigarette filters were recycled and the resulting leachate was analyzed. The results showed that the minimum and maximum Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) of the studied leachates were 2100 mg/L and 11,300 mg/L, respectively. The maximum temporal variation in the studied leachate quality was 74.28%, but the maximum spatial variation was 314.2%. COD in the freshly smoked sample was 2600-9200 mg/L more than the littered samples. The average concentration of chromium, lead, nickel, and cadmium in littered samples was 0.023, 0.024, 0.045, and 0.019 mg/L, respectively. Environmental conditions such as humidity, the efficiency of the urban cleaning system in reducing the resistance of littered filters, the difference in the quality of the filter and tobacco, and the difference in smoking behaviors were effective in this variation. Reducing the toxicity of cigarette smoke and improving the efficiency of the urban cleaning system can lead to the same quality, but leachate treatment is necessary to reduce the environmental risk.

Toxicity of leachate from smoked cigarette butts to terrestrial animals: A case study on the earthworm Eisenia fetida

Cigarette butts, as easily overlooked littered wastes, have been evaluated for toxicity in various researches. In this study, we investigated the toxic effects of smoked cigarette butt leachate (SCBL) on the earthworm Eisenia fetida. The results showed the following: 1) E. fetida avoided SCBL in artificial soil, and the avoidance rate was positively correlated with the concentration of SCBL but negatively correlated with the exposure time; 2) the LD50 of SCBL on earthworms at 36 and 48 h of exposure were 3.71 × 10-4 and 2.67 × 10-4 butts/cm2, respectively. Moreover, both the body surface and intestinal tissues of E. fetida were damaged after exposure to SCBL; 3) the survival rates of E. fetida exposed to artificial soil with an SCBL of 3.6 butts/kg for 7 and 14 days were 80.00 ± 7.07 % and 68.00 ± 4.47 %, respectively; and 4) the mean biomass of the surviving E. fetida in all treated groups decreased with increasing SCBL concentration and exposure time. We concluded that SCBL exerted significant negative effects on soil animals, and suggested that SCBs should be collected, detoxified, and reused before entering the natural environment.

Cigarette butt pollution in popular beaches of Morocco: Abundance, distribution, and mitigation measures

Cigarette butts pose a significant challenge in managing solid litter, with an estimated 4.5 trillion of them being discarded into the environment annually. This study investigated the pollution of eleven beaches along the Moroccan Mediterranean by cigarette butts compared to other types of marine litter between 2018 and 2023. Sampling was conducted using the visual survey technique according to a standardized protocol. A total of 50, 575 items were collected with cigarette butts (14.62 %) and plastic caps/lids drinks (10.93 %) being the most common. Our survey of eleven beaches revealed 7395 cigarette butts, giving an average density of 0.06/m2 comparable to other countries in the Mediterranean. The analysis of the results shows significant differences in the abundance cigarette butts according to the beach typology, seasonality, sediment type, and number of beach users. Moreover, the study discovered a decrease in beach pollution during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown, resulting in less litter collected compared to pre- and post-pandemic periods. The Cigarette Butt Pollution Index was categorized as very low pollution in M'diq and Kaa Asrass, low pollution in Ksar Sghir, Fnideq, Amsa, Oued Laou, significant pollution in Martil and Nador and sever pollution in Saidia and Sababia. The CBPI was higher during summer and winter, significantly associated with the density levels of beach users. The study recommends immediate action by the local administration to prevent the potential pollution of groundwater and sand by toxic substances leached from cigarette butts.

Abundance and distribution of cigarette butts on the sand of five touristic beaches in Latin America during the COVID-19 pandemic

Cigarette butts (CB) and cigarette butt fibers (CBF) are highly abundant and frequent residues on beach sand. Also, they are hazardous waste due to their significant toxicity and potential risk to the ecosystems' biota and the health of beach tourists. This study aimed to determine the abundance and density of CB and CBF found on the active, rest, and service zones of five pilot beaches in Argentina, Colombia, Brazil, Ecuador, and Mexico. The methodology involved collecting CB and CBF in 500 m2 transects of urban tourist beaches using a citizen science-adapted methodology between June 2021 and May 2022, during the COVID-19 pandemic. The abundance and density of CB and CBF, and the Cigarette Butt Pollution Index (CBPI) were calculated. The highest proportion of CB was found in service and rest areas. Bocagrande (CO) reported the highest generation of CB and CBF and a severe CBPI.

Spatio-temporal distribution of cigarette butt contamination in urban beaches with varying levels of use

This study assessed the extent of cigarette butt contamination on two urban beaches in Recife-PE (Pernambuco State, Brazil) with varying levels of use. The study considered degradation levels and evaluated whether the brands varied by time, space, and beaches use. Ten transects (1.5 m wide) and spaced 10 m apart, were delimited on the beaches investigated. Twelve collections were made between May 2021 and January 2022, and the collected cigarette butts were evaluated based on degradation level, mass, size, and brand. In total, 10,275 cigarette butts were collected on both beaches, with P1 accounting for 96.91% of the found cigarette butts. The density of cigarette butts on the beaches was directly proportional to the level of use, with 8.85 butts/m2 in P1 and 1.05 butts/m2 in P2. Eighteen brands were identified, with brand (A) being the most popular regardless of the area. Significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) were found when evaluating the amount of butts/m2; Sundays with high precipitation presented reduced values of butts; more occupied areas presented transects with higher amounts; abundance in the summer; morphometry with higher values recorded in newly discarded butts; predominance of more degraded butts and brand diversity. Despite the difference in the number of butts/m2 between the areas, it was possible to identify that their abundance is very expressive, and that the monitored beaches present a high exposure to the contaminant.

Beach litter in three South American countries: A baseline for restarting monitoring and cleaning after COVID-19 closure

The COVID-19 pandemic caused that most countries established the closure of many beaches, affecting the scientific monitoring of thousands of coastal sectors. This article shows the status of beach litter in South America before and after COVID-19 closure. The data were obtained during the years 2019, 2020 and 2022 on 25 beaches using a technique BLAT-QQ. The results show that cigarette butts were the most frequent type of litter, meanwhile Brazil should improve cleanliness of general gross litter and gross polystyrene. Colombia gross vegetation litter and small vegetation litter, and Ecuador organic litter from animals. The results shown in qualitative and quantitative manner facilitate their understanding for managers, scholars and activists interested on beach litter monitoring. This baseline is useful to analyse regional and worldwide marine litter trends with the purpose to start or restart monitoring of tourist beaches from a science-based method.

Small Butt Harmful: Individual- and Population-Level Impacts of Cigarette Filter Particles on the Deposit-Feeding Polychaete Capitella teleta

In the marine environment, discarded cigarette filters (CFs) deteriorate and leach filter-associated chemicals. The study aim was to assess the effects of smoked CFs (SCFs) and non-smoked CFs (NCFs) particles on individual life-history traits in the deposit-feeding polychaete Capitella teleta and extrapolate these to possible population-level effects. C. teleta was exposed to sediment-spiked particles of NCFs and SCFs at an environmentally realistic concentration (0.1 mg particles g^-1 dw sed) and a 100-fold higher (10 mg particles g^-1 dw sed) concentration. Experimental setup incorporated 11 individual endpoints and lasted approximately 6 months. There were significant effects on all endpoints, except from adult body volume and egestion rate, in worms exposed to 10 mg SCF particles g^-1 dw sed. Although not statistically significant, there was ≥50% impact on time between reproductive events and number of eggs per female at 0.1 mg SCF particles g^-1 dw sed. None of the endpoints was significantly affected by NCFs. Results suggest that SCFs are likely to affect individual life-history traits of C. teleta, whereas the population model suggests that these effects might not transform into population-level effects. The results further indicate that chemicals associated with CFs are the main driver causing the effects rather than the CF particles.

Spatial and temporal variation of CBPI and leakage of heavy metals from cigarette butts into the urban environment

More than 5 trillion cigarettes are produced in the world every year. This hazardous waste is one of the most important litter in the environment. The purpose of this study was to investigate the density and dispersion of cigarette butts in the urban environment and to estimate the leakage of pollution from it to the environment. For this purpose, the cigarette butt pollution index was used in 14 locations. Observations were made during a year and once a month for each location. The study of the locations was done with the same conditions on weekend and working days. The amount of heavy metal leakage was estimated based on the average weight of cigarette butts and the ratio of metal leakage in different weather conditions. The results showed that the annual average of index for the studied locations was 1.36 (SD 0.11) to 10.6 (SD 1.23). Based on this, 28.5% of the locations were in the low pollution status and 42.8% were in the significant pollution status and worse. On average, the index on weekend decreased by 32.3 percent in all locations, and the average index of the studied locations in spring and summer was 26.2 percent higher than in autumn and winter. The average leakage of heavy metals including chromium, cadmium, zinc, lead, copper, and nickel from littered cigarette butts in commercial, residential, and recreational areas was estimated to be 0.27, 0.079, and 0.17 µg per square meter, respectively. Cigarette butt is one of the most abundant litter in the studied area, which is the source of many pollutants, including heavy metals. This hazardous waste is a serious threat to the urban environment.

Horizontal and vertical segregation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Egyptian Mediterranean coast

Egyptian Mediterranean coast receives significant amounts of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from industrial exhausts, riverine inputs, maritime shipping and fishers, and oil and natural gas production and exploration. The present study considers the first exhaustive assessment for the dissolved PAHs along the Egyptian Mediterranean coast (Alexandria to Manzallah) to monitor their spatial distribution and investigate the effect of the marine currents and the role of microorganisms in their distribution. Surface water levels ranged between 124.97 and 301.02 ng L^-1 with an average 223.68 ± 41.11 ng L^-1. The distribution increases from west to east based on the water circulation in the Mediterranean Sea. The levels in near shore stations were lower than those of middle and onshore stations. The intensive existence of micro-organisms near shore stations consumes great part of PAHs, while this bio-remediation process decreases gradually away from the shoreline leaving relative high concentrations of dissolved PAHs in the middle and onshore stations. Middle and deep-water levels ranged between 312.75 and 1042.95 ng L^-1 with an average 633.47 ± 225.53 ng L^-1. Deeper waters showed higher PAHs concentrations where the average concentrations of 50 m stations (868.12 ± 138.35 ng L^-1) ˃ 30 m stations (629.49 ± 143.85 ng L^-1) ˃ 10 m stations (402.79 ± 59.46 ng L^-1). The wind-induced waves re-suspend rich PAHs sediment particles to increase its concentration in the water column. Carcinogenic toxic equivalent quotient (TEQ) for total detected PAHs in the middle and deep water represented more than double (75.46 ng TEQ L^-1) the value in the surface water (34.76 ng TEQ L^-1). The diagnostic ratios and principal component analysis indicated mainly pyrogenic origin in surface, middle, and deep waters.

Preparation of a cellulose acetate membrane using cigarette butt recycling and investigation of its efficiency in removing heavy metals from aqueous solution

This study investigated the recycling of freshly-smoked cigarette butts (FCBs) and unsmoked cigarette filters (UCFs) into a cellulose acetate (CA) membrane. The both samples were prepared by means of a combination of seven cigarette brands, and the phase inversion method was used to recycle each sample into a membrane using N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone. The efficiency of the prepared membranes for the removal of chromium, cadmium, and lead from an aqueous solution in a forward osmosis reactor was investigated. The results showed that the both membranes had a smooth surface and macrovoids. The flux of the prepared membranes from the UCFs and FCBs recycling were 14.8 and 13.2 LMH, respectively. The porosity and reverse salt of the UCFs membrane were 61% and 3.5 gMH, while those for FCBs membrane were 58% and 3.9 gMH. The observed metal removal efficiency of the both membranes was in the range of 85 to 90%. However, increasing the concentration of metals up to five times caused a slight decrease in the removal efficiency (less than 5%).