Survey of Ephedra resources in the Northern Areas of Pakistan and their genetic diversity

Physical and chemical characteristics of soils in Ephedra gerardiana and E. pachyclada habitats of Kali Gandaki Valley in Central Nepal

In the Kali Gandaki Valley in Central Nepal, Ephedra gerardiana and E. pachyclada show species specificity for physical and chemical characteristics of soils. Here, the relationship between soil characteristics and ephedrine and pseudoephedrine contents was examined. E. gerardiana grew in moist alpine scrub and upper alpine meadow from 3735 to 4156 m a.s.l., while E. pachyclada grew in the lower Caragana steppe and dry alpine scrub from 2629 to 3671 m a.s.l. The soil texture of E. gerardiana and E. pachyclada collection sites were classified as loam or sandy loam mainly composed of sand and silt. Loss on ignition (%) of soil in E. gerardiana habitats (28.4-35.0%) was markedly higher than for that in E. pachyclada habitats (14.2-17.2%). E. pachyclada soil (pH 8.4-9.2) was more alkaline than that for E. gerardiana (pH 8.5). The five ions (Cl^-, SO₄^2-, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, and Na⁺) in soil of E. pachyclada (Cl^-, 0.01-18.97 mmol/100 g dry soil weight; SO₄^2-, 1.95-83.33; Ca²⁺, 3.79-77.91; Mg²⁺, 1.28-27.9; Na⁺, 0.94-34.49) were markedly higher than those of E. gerardiana (Cl^-, 0.18-0.29; SO₄^2-, 0.07-0.08; Ca²⁺, 4.19-4.59; Mg²⁺, 0.22-0.58; Na⁺, 0.93-1.40). The main factor contributing to strongly alkali soils for each species was different between E. gerardiana and E. pachyclada: CaCO₃ for E. gerardiana and CaSO₄, MgSO₄, NaCl, or a combination of these for E. pachyclada. The total ephedrine and pseudoephedrine content in E. gerardiana and E. pachyclada ranged from 1.67-1.88%DW and 1.95-4.80%DW, respectively. Both E. gerardiana and E. pachyclada were amenable for use a raw material source for extraction of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, and the ephedrine content of both species showed a statistically significantly positive correlation with Mg²⁺ and Na⁺ contents of the soil.

Field Survey of Ephedra Plants in Central Asia (1). Characterization of Ephedra equisetina, Ephedra intermedia, and Their Putative Hybrids Collected in the Zaravshan Mountains of Tajikistan

Field surveys of Ephedra plants were conducted in the Zaravshan Mountains of Tajikistan. E. equisetina, E. intermedia, and their putative hybrids were collected. They were identified based on their phenotypes and their sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) region. Sequencing and species-specific PCR analyses of their ITS1 sequences revealed six putative hybrids of E. equisetina and E. intermedia. The total ephedrine and pseudoephedrine content of most of the Ephedra samples collected in Tajikistan were higher than the 0.7% lower limit prescribed by the Japanese pharmacopoeia, 17th edition (JP17), and varied from 0.34 to 3.21% by dry weight. The total alkaloid level of E. intermedia (11E08-1) cultivated in Japan varied from 1.77 to 2.30% by dry weight, which was much higher than the 0.7% lower limit prescribed by JP17.

Phylogenic Analysis and Evaluation of Ephedra Plants and Aconites for Medicinal Use

Although Kampo medicine is now fully integrated into the modern Japanese healthcare system, most Kampo formulations depend on imported crude drugs from limited foreign areas. To prepare for possible shortages of crude drugs in the future, a wider scope for the supply of medicinal plants is necessary. We conducted field research and collaborated with international laboratories for phylogenic analysis and evaluation of medicinal plant resources. Our research on ephedra plants from a wide region of Eurasia has, for example, confirmed their phylogenic structure: based on DNA sequencing analysis of nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer region 1 (ITS1) as well as the chloroplast intergenic spacer between trnL and trnF (trnL-F), the 8 major Chinese species and related plants grown on the continent could be divided into 3 groups. Additionally, Ephredra sinica was found to be synonymous with Ephredra dahurica and was reduced to a subspecies of Ephredra distachya. Furthermore, Ephredra likiangensis and Ephredra gerardiana, which are grouped in separate phylogenic trees, would be good candidates for medicinal material. Aconites from Hokkaido, as an example of domestic plants reviewed, were collected for phylogenic and aconitine alkaloid content analysis. The phylogenic analysis of nr ITSs revealed that the majority of specimens were genetically similar. However, the aconitine alkaloid content of the tuberous roots demonstrated that specimens from different habitats had varying alkaloid profiles. Environmental pressure of each habitat is presumed to have caused the morphology and aconitine alkaloid profiles of these genetically similar specimens to diversify.

In Vitro Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Activities of Ephedra gerardiana (Root and Stem) Crude Extract and Fractions

The utilization of medicinal plants to treat infectious disease is a common practice in developing countries worldwide. The present study was aimed at evaluating the crude extracts of Ephedra gerardiana (root and stem) with different chemicals for antioxidant and antimicrobial (fungal and bacterial) potential. The results revealed that the ethyl acetate fractions of E. gerardiana (root and stem) have significant free radical scavenging potential with values 2.96 ± 0.39 and 2.73 ± 0.84 while n-butanol and aqueous fractions showed IC₅₀2.69 ± 0.26 and 3.44 ± 0.69 µg/ml in stem. Furthermore, crude extract and fractions also revealed promising antibacterial activities against all tested microbial strains while aqueous fraction showed no activities against Bacillus subtilis, Kleibsiella pneumoniae, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Interestingly, all crude extracts and fractions were nonactive against fungal strain, Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus flavus, as compare to control. In summary, the Ephedra gerardiana (root and stem) extract and fraction possess antioxidant activities, which might be helpful in preventing or slowing the progress of various oxidative stresses, suggested to be a strong pharmaceutical agent.