Environmental and soil characteristics in Ephedra habitats of Uzbekistan

Predicting the spatial distribution of three Ephedra species under climate change using the MaxEnt model

In the context of global warming, the habitats of Ephedra, including Ephedra sinica Stapf, Ephedra intermedia Schrenk ex Mey, and Ephedra equisetina Bunge, have been substantially threatened and deteriorated in recent years. Little is known about the potential geographic dynamics of economically renowned species, including those used in sand fixation and traditional Chinese medicine, under climate change. Therefore, evaluating their potential habitat and determining the crucial environmental variables affecting E. sinica, E. intermedia and E. equisetina under the driving force of global warming are extremely important. In this study, an optimized MaxEnt model in the kuenm package on the basis of occurrence records (a total of 103, 101 and 97 points for E. sinica, E. intermedia and E. equisetina, respectively) and 37 environmental factors were utilized to simulate the distribution of the three species. Two representative concentration pathways (SSP2.6 and SSP8.5) at 2041-2060 and 2061-2080, respectively, were used to establish a future distribution model of the three species. The results indicated that approximately 6.92 × 105 km2, 2.95 × 105 km2, and 11.5 × 105 km2 of suitable regions for E. sinica, E. intermedia and E. equisetina were obtained, which were mostly distributed in central and eastern Inner Mongolia, eastern and southern Gansu, and northern Xinjiang, respectively. Critical environmental variables, such as land cover and annual precipitation, were regarded as critical parameters for the three species. Future assessment revealed that over 60 % of the potential distribution area was affected, and the stability of E. sinica under the SSP8.5 scenario was the greatest. The spatial dynamic changes in suitable areas for E. intermedia were smaller than those for E. equisetina and E. sinica in the future. The comprehensive analysis revealed that the fluctuations in the distributions of the three Ephedra species under climate change are small and provide useful information for future conservation. Therefore, target conservation and management measures should be implemented in combination with the suitability thresholds of different environmental parameters. Our results provide useful recommendations for the current and future protection of Ephedra populations.

Modelling the amount of inputs needed for methamphetamine manufacture in Afghanistan

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The use and manufacture of methamphetamine has increased in Afghanistan in recent years. Recent research and reports have pointed to the ephedra plant, which grows wildly, as a key source of ephedrine used in the manufacture of methamphetamine. This paper aimed to estimate the relative efficiencies and scale of inputs required to manufacture methamphetamine in Afghanistan.

METHODS

Monte Carlo simulations model of the amount of ephedra or cold medications needed to render a pure kilogram of methamphetamine in Afghanistan, accounting for uncertainty in ranges of key parameters informed from the literature and elsewhere. Final estimates were extrapolated to recent seizure totals.

RESULTS

For dried ephedra, the median estimate is 196.8 kg (25th-75th percentiles 119.3-346.6 kg) needed to produce 1 kg of methamphetamine compared with 27.9 kg (25th-75th percentiles 21.9-36.8 kg) for cold medications. Nearly 2.7 t of methamphetamine were seized in Afghanistan in 2021. Assuming a purity range of 50%-90%, some 266-478 t of dried ephedra or 38-68 t of cold medication would need to have been processed.

CONCLUSION

Simulated estimates show that considerable amounts of either ephedra or cold medication are needed to produce 1 kg of methamphetamine in Afghanistan. This raises questions about the plausibility of ephedra as the dominant source of Afghanistan's methamphetamine.

Ethnobotanical Uses and Pharmacological Activities of Moroccan Ephedra Species

Ephedra species are among the most popular herbs used in traditional medicine for a long time. The ancient Chinese medical book "Treatise on Febrile Diseases" refers to the classic traditional Chinese medicine prescription Ge Gen decoction, which consists of seven herbs, including an Ephedra species. Ephedra species are utilized all over the world to treat symptoms of the common cold and coughs, and to combat major human diseases, such as asthma, cancers, diabetes, cardiovascular and digestive disorders, and microbial infections. This study aimed at identifying specific Ephedra species used traditionally in Morocco for therapeutic purposes. The plant parts, their preparation process, and the treated pathologies were identified and analyzed. The results revealed five ethnobotanically important species of Ephedra: Ephedra alata Decne, Ephedra altissima Desf., Ephedra distachya L., Ephedra fragilis Desf., and Ephedra nebrodensis Tineo. These species are used traditionally in Morocco for treating people with diabetes, cancer, rheumatism, cold and asthma, hypertension, influenza virus infection, and respiratory ailments. In addition, they are occasionally used as calefacient agents, to regulate weight, or for capillary care. Few studies have underlined the antibacterial and antioxidant activities of some of these Moroccan Ephedra species, but little information is available regarding the natural products at the origin of the bioactivities. Further phytochemical investigations and clinical data are encouraged to better support the use of these plants.

The effect of high altitude on ephedrine content and metabolic variations in two species of Ephedra

Ephedra is an important plant in Chinese medicine; however, there are few reports on two species of Ephedra which are distributed at high altitudes from 3000 to 5200 meters. We collected a total of 84 individuals representing five Ephedra gerardiana and nine Ephedra saxatilis populations respectively located from 3158 to 5200 meters altitude, and determined the relative content of 213 metabolites using UHPLC-MS/MS (Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry). 37 Chemical compositions were annotated using the KEGG (Kyoto Encyclopaedia of Genes and Genomes) database. From the top five significant enrichments in metabolic KEGG pathway analysis, we found a total of 166 compounds belonging to phenylpropanoids, 123 flavonoids, 67 metabolites carried by ABC transporters, and 61 in purine metabolism. We identified the top 8 altitude-related compounds in two species. Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine were found to be associated with altitude in both E. saxatilis and E. gerardiana. To verify which environmental factors influenced the metabolic content, the soil moisture and temperature of each population site were collected, and quantitative analysis of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine was performed using UHPLC-MS (Ultra-High-Performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry). After detection, soil moisture ranged from 0.074 to 0.177 mm3/mm3, and temperature ranged from 9.7°C to 23.9°C. The content of ephedrine ranged from (0.84 ± 0.49)% to (2.01 ± 0.41)% in E. saxatilis, which was positively correlated with soil moisture; the content of pseudoephedrine ranged from (0.72 ± 0.45)% to (1.11 ± 0.57)% and was negatively correlated with soil moisture. In contrast to these results, in E. gerardiana, the content of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine was negatively correlated with soil moisture. Furthermore, the trends of alkaloid contents in two kinds of Ephedra were similar when the temperature was lower than 17°C even if the sum was various. With the increase in soil moisture and temperature, the total alkaloid content of E. saxatilis was higher than that of E. gerardiana. When the soil moisture was lower, the alkaloid content of the two Ephedra species was higher. These results provide useful data for the future separation of new compounds, and for seed homogeneous growth to determine artificial breeding of Ephedra located at high altitudes.

Ephedrine and pseudoephedrine in Ephedra saxatilis on the vertical altitude gradient changed in southern Tibet Plateau, China

Ephedra is one of the world's most important plants, used in medicine, plants and ecology. Most Ephedra grows in plain areas and is stable. But the plateau environment is special, with the change of altitude, the variety difference of plateau Ephedra saxatilis is very obvious. E. saxatilis metabolism on the Tibetan Plateau is not only affected by altitude, but also environmental conditions such as climate conditions and different soil components. However, the change mechanism of E. saxatilis alkaloids in special ecological environment is still unclear. Therefore, we analyzed the metabolic and altitude of E. saxatilis species in the Tibetan Plateau. Through the functional analysis of Kyoto Metabolism and Metabolomic Encyclopedia (KEGG), we can determine that the number of E. saxatilis metabolites decreases with the increase of altitude, and there are differences in metabolism among the three mountains. This was confirmed by univariate analysis of the top five metabolic pathways. Based on the analysis of soil and metabolomics, it was found that soil water content was also a factor affecting E. saxatilis metabolism. According to the difference of vertical height gradient, ephedrine and pseudephedrine showed the same change in vertical altitude under different mountains. Ephedrine increased as the altitude gradient increased, and pseudoephedrine decreased as the altitude gradient decreased. Our results provide valuable information for further study of metabolic mechanism and efficacy stability. It provides useful reference for the research of E. saxatilis planting in special area.

Ecological and pharmacognostical characteristics in Ephedra saxatilis in the Yarlung Zangbo River Valley of southeastern Tibetan Plateau, China

In the Yarlung Zangbo River Valley of the southeastern Tibetan Plateau, China (29°07'49.5"N, 92°41'11.0"E, 3256 m above sea level), we found an Ephedra saxatilis community in the xeric steppe with shrubland vegetation habitat of the broad alluvial plain of the river with soil having relatively higher water-soluble cation (Ca²⁺, 8.62; K⁺, 1.94; Mg²⁺, 2.38 mmol/100 g dry soil weight) and nitrogen (NO₃^-, 21.78; NH₄⁺, 1.82 mmol/100 g dry soil weight) content. The ranges of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine in 13 E. saxatilis samples were as follows: ephedrine, not detected-3.03 of dry weight (%DW) and pseudoephedrine, not detected-1.36%DW. The 13 E. saxatilis plants collected in the study area showed intraspecific variability of ephedrine and pseudoephedrine with 6 samples containing ephedrine and pseudoephedrine, 6 samples containing only ephedrine, and 1 sample containing only pseudoephedrine.

Modeling for Predicting the Potential Geographical Distribution of Three Ephedra Herbs in China

Ephedra species are beneficial for environmental protection in desert and grassland ecosystems. They have high ecological, medicinal, and economic value. To strengthen the protection of the sustainable development of Ephedra, we used occurrence records of Ephedra sinica Stapf., Ephedra intermedia Schrenk et C.A. Mey., and Ephedra equisetina Bge., combined with climate, soil, and topographic factors to simulate the suitable habitat of three Ephedra based on ensemble models on the Biomod2 platform. The results of the models were tested using AUC, TSS, and kappa coefficients. The results demonstrated that the ensemble model was able to accurately predict the potential distributions of E. sinica, E. intermedia, and E. equisetina. Eastern and central Inner Mongolia, middle and eastern Gansu, and northeastern Xinjiang were the optimum regions for the growth of E. sinica, E. intermedia, and E. equisetina, respectively. Additionally, several key environmental factors had a significant influence on the suitable habitats of the three Ephedra. The key factors affecting the distribution of E. sinica, E. intermedia, and E. equisetina were annual average precipitation, altitude, and vapor pressure, respectively. In conclusion, the results showed that the suitable ranges of the three Ephedra were mainly in Northwest China and that topography and climate were the primary influencing factors.

Seasonal variation of alkaloids and polyphenol in Ephedra sinica cultivated in Japan and controlling factors

We investigated the seasonal variation of alkaloids (ephedrine and pseudoephedrine), total polyphenol, and sugar contents in Ephedra sinica cultivated in Japan and elucidated the controlling factors for the variation. In 2018, alkaloids and polyphenol contents increased dramatically from May to July, decreased to their lowest in October, and slightly increased again in November. The reduction of alkaloids and polyphenol contents in the autumn may be affected by precipitation in summer. In 2020, alkaloids and polyphenol contents started to decrease in late July when rainfall was abundant from July to August. In contrast, sucrose and starch contents continued to increase until September and remained high until October. Vascular bundles and fiber developed, and herbal stem weight increased from August to October. Alkaloids and total polyphenol contents tended to increase in November. At the same time, starch and sucrose contents decreased dramatically, whereas glucose and fructose contents increased. Sugar content decreased from October and was lowest in November. The seasonal variation of alkaloids and total polyphenol contents exhibited a contrasting tendency to the seasonal variation of sugar content and tissue development. The seasonal variation of alkaloids and total polyphenol contents was caused by the seasonal variation of sugar content and tissue development. In addition, it is suggested that anatomy may be used for alkaloids content estimation in Ephedra plants.