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Moustafa RE, Tarbah F, Saeed HS, Sharif SI. Designer benzodiazepines versus prescription benzodiazepines: can structural relation predict the next step? Crit Rev Toxicol 2021; 51:249-263. [PMID: 34038656 DOI: 10.1080/10408444.2021.1907303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Designer benzodiazepines are a part of the recently discovered abuse synthetic drugs called Novel Psychoactive Substances (NPS) which need to be controlled due to their constantly growing market. Most of them are derived from the medically approved benzodiazepines used nowadays yet, may possess stronger effects, more toxicity, and longer durations of action. Some differences have also been observed in their detection and characteristics, in addition to the variations discovered in postmortem redistribution and drug stability. All these major alterations in features can result from only minor structural modifications. For example, a classic benzodiazepine (BZD) like diazepam only lacks one fluorine atom which exists in its derivatized designer drug, diclazepam, making substantial differences in activity. For this reason, it is essential to study the designer drugs in order to identify their dangers and distinguish them thus rule out their abuse and control the spread of such drugs. This review would highlight the distinct characteristics of some of the most commonly abused designer benzodiazepine analogies in relation to their original prescription BZD compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raneem E Moustafa
- Department of Pharmacy Practice & Pharmacotherapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Fuad Tarbah
- Department of Pharmacy Practice & Pharmacotherapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Huda Sulaiman Saeed
- General Department of Forensic Science and Criminology, Toxicology Section, Dubai Police Head Quarter, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
| | - Suleiman I Sharif
- Department of Pharmacy Practice & Pharmacotherapeutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
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García Del Valle I, Alvarez-Lorenzo C. Atropine in topical formulations for the management of anterior and posterior segment ocular diseases. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2021; 18:1245-1260. [PMID: 33787441 DOI: 10.1080/17425247.2021.1909568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Atropine is an old-known drug which is gaining increasing attention due to the myriad of therapeutic effects it may trigger on eye structures. Nevertheless, novel applications may require more adequate topical formulations. AREAS COVERED This review aims to gather the existing knowledge about atropine and its clinical applications in the ophthalmological field when administered topically. Atropine ocular pharmacokinetics is paid a special attention, including recent evidences of the capability of the drug to access to the posterior segment. Ocular bioavailability and systemic bioavailability are counterbalanced. Finally, limitations of traditional dosage forms and potential advantages of under investigation delivery systems are analyzed. EXPERT OPINION Mydriasis and cyclopegia have been widely exploited for eye examination, management of anterior segment diseases, and more recently as antidotes of chemical weapons. Improved knowledge on drug receptors and related pathways explains atropine repositioning as an outstanding tool to prevent myopia. The ease with which atropine penetrates ocular tissues is a double edged sword, that is, while it ensures therapeutic levels in the posterior segment, the unspecific distribution causes a wide variety of untoward effects. The design of formulations that can selectively deliver atropine to the target tissue for each specific application is an urgent unmet need.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ines García Del Valle
- Departamento De Farmacología, Farmacia Y Tecnología Farmacéutica, I+D FarmaGroup, Facultad De Farmacia and Health Research Institute of Santiago De Compostela (IDIS), Universidade De Santiago De Compostela, Santiago De Compostela, Spain
| | - Carmen Alvarez-Lorenzo
- Departamento De Farmacología, Farmacia Y Tecnología Farmacéutica, I+D FarmaGroup, Facultad De Farmacia and Health Research Institute of Santiago De Compostela (IDIS), Universidade De Santiago De Compostela, Santiago De Compostela, Spain
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Wójtowicz A, Wietecha-Posłuszny R, Snamina M. Contemporary trends in drug analysis of vitreous humor: A critical review. Trends Analyt Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2020.115935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Lech T, Turek W. Application of TDA AAS to Direct Mercury Determination in Postmortem Material in Forensic Toxicology Examinations. J Anal Toxicol 2019; 43:385-391. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bky107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Revised: 09/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Teresa Lech
- Institute of Forensic Research, Department of Forensic Toxicology, Westerplatte 9, Krakow, Poland
| | - Wioletta Turek
- Department of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 2, Krakow, Poland
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Ishikawa AA, Bordin DM, de Campos EG, Blanes L, Doble P, De Martinis BS. A Gas Chromatography–Mass Spectrometry Method for Toxicological Analysis of MDA, MDEA and MDMA in Vitreous Humor Samples from Victims of Car Accidents. J Anal Toxicol 2018; 42:661-666. [DOI: 10.1093/jat/bky044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2017] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Aline Akemi Ishikawa
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, S/N Café Avenue, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Dayanne Mozaner Bordin
- Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, S/N Café Avenue, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Eduardo Geraldo de Campos
- Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto Universidade de São Paulo, 3900 Bandeirantes Avenue, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Lucas Blanes
- Instituto de Tecnologia do Paraná, 3775 Professor Algacyr Munhoz Mader Street, Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
| | - Philip Doble
- University of Technology Sydney, Cnr Harris and Thomas Streets, Ultimo NSW, Australia
| | - Bruno Spinosa De Martinis
- Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto Universidade de São Paulo, 3900 Bandeirantes Avenue, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
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Ferner RE, Aronson JK. The toxicological significance of post-mortem drug concentrations in bile. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2017; 56:7-14. [PMID: 28681613 DOI: 10.1080/15563650.2017.1339886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Robin E. Ferner
- Institute of Clinical Science, University of Birmingham, and West Midlands Centre for Adverse Drug Reactions, City Hospital, Birmingham, UK
| | - Jeffrey K. Aronson
- Centre for Evidence Based Medicine, Nuffield Department of Primary Care Health Sciences, Radcliffe infirmary, Oxford, UK
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Bévalot F, Cartiser N, Bottinelli C, Fanton L, Guitton J. État de l’art de l’analyse de la bile en toxicologie médicolégale. TOXICOLOGIE ANALYTIQUE ET CLINIQUE 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxac.2016.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Bazmi E, Behnoush B, Akhgari M, Bahmanabadi L. Quantitative analysis of benzodiazepines in vitreous humor by high-performance liquid chromatography. SAGE Open Med 2016; 4:2050312116666243. [PMID: 27635251 PMCID: PMC5011391 DOI: 10.1177/2050312116666243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2016] [Accepted: 08/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Benzodiazepines are frequently screened drugs in emergency toxicology, drugs of abuse testing, and in forensic cases. As the variations of benzodiazepines concentrations in biological samples during bleeding, postmortem changes, and redistribution could be biasing forensic medicine examinations, hence selecting a suitable sample and a validated accurate method is essential for the quantitative analysis of these main drug categories. The aim of this study was to develop a valid method for the determination of four benzodiazepines (flurazepam, lorazepam, alprazolam, and diazepam) in vitreous humor using liquid-liquid extraction and high-performance liquid chromatography. METHODS Sample preparation was carried out using liquid-liquid extraction with n-hexane: ethyl acetate and subsequent detection by high-performance liquid chromatography method coupled to diode array detector. This method was applied to quantify benzodiazepines in 21 authentic vitreous humor samples. Linear curve for each drug was obtained within the range of 30-3000 ng/mL with coefficient of correlation higher than 0.99. RESULTS The limit of detection and quantitation were 30 and 100 ng/mL respectively for four drugs. The method showed an appropriate intra- and inter-day precision (coefficient of variation < 10%). Benzodiazepines recoveries were estimated to be over 80%. The method showed high selectivity; no additional peak due to interfering substances in samples was observed. CONCLUSION The present method was selective, sensitive, accurate, and precise for the quantitative analysis of benzodiazepines in vitreous humor samples in forensic toxicology laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elham Bazmi
- Legal Medicine Research Center, Legal Medicine Organization, Forensic Toxicology Department, Tehran, Iran
| | - Behnam Behnoush
- Department of Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences (TUMS), Tehran, Iran
| | - Maryam Akhgari
- Legal Medicine Research Center, Legal Medicine Organization, Forensic Toxicology Department, Tehran, Iran
| | - Leila Bahmanabadi
- Legal Medicine Research Center, Legal Medicine Organization, Forensic Toxicology Department, Tehran, Iran
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Bazmi E, Behnoush B, Akhgari M, Bahmanabadi L. Quantitative analysis of benzodiazepines in vitreous humor by high-performance liquid chromatography. SAGE Open Med 2016. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177%2f2050312116666243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: Benzodiazepines are frequently screened drugs in emergency toxicology, drugs of abuse testing, and in forensic cases. As the variations of benzodiazepines concentrations in biological samples during bleeding, postmortem changes, and redistribution could be biasing forensic medicine examinations, hence selecting a suitable sample and a validated accurate method is essential for the quantitative analysis of these main drug categories. The aim of this study was to develop a valid method for the determination of four benzodiazepines (flurazepam, lorazepam, alprazolam, and diazepam) in vitreous humor using liquid–liquid extraction and high-performance liquid chromatography. Methods: Sample preparation was carried out using liquid–liquid extraction with n-hexane: ethyl acetate and subsequent detection by high-performance liquid chromatography method coupled to diode array detector. This method was applied to quantify benzodiazepines in 21 authentic vitreous humor samples. Linear curve for each drug was obtained within the range of 30–3000 ng/mL with coefficient of correlation higher than 0.99. Results: The limit of detection and quantitation were 30 and 100 ng/mL respectively for four drugs. The method showed an appropriate intra- and inter-day precision (coefficient of variation < 10%). Benzodiazepines recoveries were estimated to be over 80%. The method showed high selectivity; no additional peak due to interfering substances in samples was observed. Conclusion: The present method was selective, sensitive, accurate, and precise for the quantitative analysis of benzodiazepines in vitreous humor samples in forensic toxicology laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elham Bazmi
- Legal Medicine Research Center, Legal Medicine Organization, Forensic Toxicology Department, Tehran, Iran
| | - Behnam Behnoush
- Department of Forensic Medicine, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences (TUMS), Tehran, Iran
| | - Maryam Akhgari
- Legal Medicine Research Center, Legal Medicine Organization, Forensic Toxicology Department, Tehran, Iran
| | - Leila Bahmanabadi
- Legal Medicine Research Center, Legal Medicine Organization, Forensic Toxicology Department, Tehran, Iran
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36th International Congress of the European Association of Poisons Centres and Clinical Toxicologists (EAPCCT) 24-27 May, 2016, Madrid, Spain. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2016; 54:344-519. [DOI: 10.3109/15563650.2016.1165952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Bévalot F, Cartiser N, Bottinelli C, Guitton J, Fanton L. State of the art in bile analysis in forensic toxicology. Forensic Sci Int 2016; 259:133-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.10.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2015] [Revised: 10/17/2015] [Accepted: 10/26/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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