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Antons S, Liebherr M, Brand M, Brandtner A. From game engagement to craving responses - The role of gratification and compensation experiences during video-gaming in casual and at-risk gamers. Addict Behav Rep 2023; 18:100520. [PMID: 38149224 PMCID: PMC10749870 DOI: 10.1016/j.abrep.2023.100520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/28/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Although playing videogames is a common leisure activity some individuals develop problematic gaming behaviors or even symptoms of a gaming disorder. Game engagement may be involved in reinforcement learning that may result in experiences of craving, an important feature of gaming disorder. In the following study we aimed to approach the question which aspects contribute to increased craving for gaming. Methods Overall, 439 individuals participated in an online survey, answering questionnaires on game engagement, experience of gratification and compensation, craving, and symptoms of gaming disorder. A mediation model testing if the association between game engagement and facets of craving are mediated by the experience of gratification and compensation during gaming. Results Three facets of craving (reward/relief, physiological, obsessive craving) were statistically explained by game engagement and the experience of gratification and compensation. Models differed between casual gamers and at-risk gamers. The effects on reward/relief and physiological craving were fully mediated in the casual group and partially mediated in the at-risk group by gratification and compensation experiences. Conclusion Game engagement may contribute to the development of craving by increasing the experience of gratification and compensation and thus might be important in reinforcement learning. Games evoking a high engagement may therefore have a higher addictive potential. Further processes potentially related to game engagement, such as intrusive thoughts and desire thinking, which are related to craving experiences, should be considered in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Antons
- General Psychology: Cognition and Center for Behavioral Addiction Research (CeBAR), University of Duisburg, Duisburg, Germany
- Erwin L. Hahn Institute for Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Essen, Germany
| | - M. Liebherr
- General Psychology: Cognition and Center for Behavioral Addiction Research (CeBAR), University of Duisburg, Duisburg, Germany
| | - M. Brand
- General Psychology: Cognition and Center for Behavioral Addiction Research (CeBAR), University of Duisburg, Duisburg, Germany
- Erwin L. Hahn Institute for Magnetic Resonance Imaging, Essen, Germany
| | - A. Brandtner
- General Psychology: Cognition and Center for Behavioral Addiction Research (CeBAR), University of Duisburg, Duisburg, Germany
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Yildiz Durak H, Haktanir A, Saritepeci M. Examining the Predictors of Video Game Addiction According to Expertise Levels of the Players: The Role of Time Spent on Video Gaming, Engagement, Positive Gaming Perception, Social Support and Relational Health Indices. Int J Ment Health Addict 2023:1-26. [PMID: 37363766 PMCID: PMC10169109 DOI: 10.1007/s11469-023-01073-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to examine the predictive relationship between video gaming addiction (VGA) and the level of video gaming competency among video gamers. Additionally, the role of time spent playing video games, video game engagement (VGE), video game positive perception (VGPP), social support and quality of relationships with peers were examined. We recruited 227 participants using the purposive sampling method. Of the participants, 50.20% self-identified as Novice-Amateur video gamers while 49.80% indicated being a regular-expert level players. We collected data from participants utilizing a personal and video games information form and five scales and (video game positive perception, videogame addiction scale, video engagement scale, multidimensional scale of perceived social support and relational health indices). These scales are valid and reliable instruments suitable for research purposes. The primary data analysis method was the Partial least squares- structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Our results demonstrated that the relationship between VGA and VGE differs based on the participants' video gaming competency level. Another important result is that VGPP has a significant positive relationship with VGA (p < 0.001), VGE (p < 0.001) and video game playing and watching activities (p < 0.001). Furthermore, an increase in the time spent on watching Twitch content is associated with an increased VGA level (p < 0.05). Finally, the time spent on playing video games has different patterns with perceptions of social support according to the level of expertise of the players. This study indicates that VGPP plays a crucial role in predicting VGA and VE and highlights the importance of considering the level of players when examining the relationship between VGA and VE. The conclusions also exhibit that the increasing popularity of esports and video game content tracking may significantly impact VGA. The role of social support in video gaming behaviors varies based on the player's level of expertise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hatice Yildiz Durak
- Eregli Faculty of Education, Department of Educational Science, Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya, Turkey
- Department of Computer and Instructional Technology Education at Necmettin, Erbakan University, Konya, Turkey
| | - Abdulkadir Haktanir
- Eregli Faculty of Education, Department of Educational Sciences, Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya, Turkey
| | - Mustafa Saritepeci
- Eregli Faculty of Education, Department of Educational Science, Necmettin Erbakan University, Konya, Turkey
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Stavropoulos V, Footitt T, Zarate D, Prokofieva M, Griffiths MD. The Online Flow Questionnaire: An Item Response Theory Examination. CYBERPSYCHOLOGY, BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL NETWORKING 2022; 25:793-801. [PMID: 36315236 DOI: 10.1089/cyber.2022.0031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Online flow refers to the rate of an individual's absorbance in an Internet activity in which they are engaged. It has been implicated with both the effectiveness of cyberhealth and online education applications, as well as excessive Internet use. One way of assessing it is the Online Flow Questionnaire (OFQ). Consequently, this study investigated the optimum measurement of online flow, as well as OFQ cutoff points, using Item Response Theory (IRT). A large sample of high school students from Greece (N = 1579, Mage = 16.12, SDage = 0.85; 50.5 percent females) completed the OFQ and the data were analyzed using IRT procedures. The analysis indicated that items in the OFQ possess differing levels of discrimination and difficulty, although all items were generally within acceptable ranges. An OFQ cutoff score of 5 represented an extremely high level of online flow experiences. The findings suggest that the OFQ generally functions as an acceptable marker of overall online flow. However, the current format of the OFQ appears to inhibit its ability to detect variability at the extreme low and high ends of the latent trait in the population assessed. Future revisions (potentially employing computerized adaptive tests) of the OFQ response format may enhance its utility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasileios Stavropoulos
- Health and Biomedicine, Victoria University, Footscray, Australia.,School of Psychology, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Trent Footitt
- Health and Biomedicine, Victoria University, Footscray, Australia
| | - Daniel Zarate
- Health and Biomedicine, Victoria University, Footscray, Australia
| | - Maria Prokofieva
- Health and Biomedicine, Victoria University, Footscray, Australia
| | - Mark D Griffiths
- International Gaming Research Unit, Psychology Department, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, United Kingdom
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Reer F, Wehden LO, Janzik R, Tangds WY, Quandt T. Virtual reality Technology and Game Enjoyment: The Contributions of natural mapping and need satisfaction. COMPUTERS IN HUMAN BEHAVIOR 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2022.107242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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An observational study of Internet behaviours for adolescent females following sexual abuse. Nat Hum Behav 2022; 6:74-87. [PMID: 34580439 PMCID: PMC9258728 DOI: 10.1038/s41562-021-01187-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Child sexual abuse (CSA) is associated with revictimization and sexual risk-taking behaviours. The Internet has increased the opportunities for teens to access sexually explicit imagery and has provided new avenues for victimization and exploitation. Online URL activity and offline psychosocial factors were assessed for 460 females aged 12-16 (CSA = 156; comparisons = 304) with sexual behaviours and Internet-initiated victimization assessed 2 years later. Females who experienced CSA did not use more pornography than comparisons but were at increased odds of being cyberbullied (odds ratio = 2.84, 95% confidence interval = 1.67-4.81). These females were also more likely to be represented in a high-risk latent profile characterized by heightened URL activity coupled with problematic psychosocial factors, which showed increased odds of being cyberbullied, receiving online sexual solicitations and heightened sexual activity. While Internet activity alone may not confer risk, results indicate a subset of teens who have experienced CSA for whom both online and offline factors contribute to problematic outcomes.
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Stavropoulos V, Motti-Stefanidi F, Griffiths MD. Risks and Opportunities for Youth in the Digital Era. EUROPEAN PSYCHOLOGIST 2021. [DOI: 10.1027/1016-9040/a000451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Abstract. Due to continued groundbreaking digital advancements, Internet use has increased significantly. This has led to a heated debate in relation to weighing the many advantages of the technology against its potentially deleterious effects. To address such questions, experts converge on the need for greater knowledge around the way individual differences, partly shaped by an individual’s unique experiences of engaging with the medium, and partly by other real-life experiences, lead to different developmental trajectories. Consequently, the goals of the present review are to (i) broadly describe differences in digital media applications, users, and usage; (ii) introduce the Cyber-Developmental Framework (CDF), as an overarching framework for understanding individual differences in adaptive and maladaptive digital media use among youth; (iii) delineate the cyber-component of this framework in relation to users’ experience of the digital context, their activity within it, as well as their digital self-presence, which may have an impact on their digital media use; and (iv) summarize priorities and future directions through the lens of this CDF. Within this context, this review particularly emphasizes the effect of digital media use on youth’s psychological well-being. It is argued that the trajectory youth will follow in their use of the Internet is a function of the interplay between their characteristics, their proximate and distal contexts, and the particular features of the digital application(s) that the individual is engaged in. The review points to the need to conduct research focusing on better understanding the developmental and digital-context-related influences on youth’s trajectories of Internet use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vasileios Stavropoulos
- National & Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
- Department of Psychology, Victoria University Australia, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | | | - Mark D. Griffiths
- International Gaming Research Unit, Nottingham Trent University, United Kingdom
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Severo RB, Soares JM, Affonso JP, Giusti DA, de Souza Junior AA, de Figueiredo VL, Pinheiro KA, Pontes HM. Prevalence and risk factors for internet gaming disorder. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 42:532-535. [PMID: 32785455 PMCID: PMC7524423 DOI: 10.1590/1516-4446-2019-0760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Accepted: 04/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To estimate the prevalence of internet gaming disorder (IGD) and associated risk factors in a sample of secondary and postsecondary students from a public federal institution of higher education (Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia) in Southern Brazil. METHODS The study included a sociodemographic questionnaire, the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Self-Report Questionnaire (SRQ-20), Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI-BR), the Mini-Social Phobia Inventory (Mini-SPIN), and the Game Addiction Scale (GAS). Finally, IGD was measured with the Brazilian version of the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short-Form (IGDS9-SF), which has been psychometrically validated in this population. RESULTS Overall, 38.2% (n=212) of the sample exhibited IGD symptoms, with 18.2% (n=101) being classed as at-risk gamers. Regression analysis found IGD to be associated with male gender, severe depressive symptoms, poor sleep quality, increased time spent gaming, and total free time spent gaming (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS The prevalence of IGD in this sample was relatively high, and associated risk factors found were similar to those previously reported in the literature. Further studies investigating the epidemiology of IGD in Brazilian samples are warranted to better understand treatment needs and inform preventive measures in this population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rovena B Severo
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Saúde e Comportamento, Universidade Católica de Pelotas (UCPel), Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Jennifer M Soares
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Saúde e Comportamento, Universidade Católica de Pelotas (UCPel), Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Josiara P Affonso
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Saúde e Comportamento, Universidade Católica de Pelotas (UCPel), Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Daniela A Giusti
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Saúde e Comportamento, Universidade Católica de Pelotas (UCPel), Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Adão A de Souza Junior
- Curso de Engenharia Elétrica, Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia Sul-Rio-Grandense (IFSul), Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Vera L de Figueiredo
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Saúde e Comportamento, Universidade Católica de Pelotas (UCPel), Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Karen A Pinheiro
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Saúde e Comportamento, Universidade Católica de Pelotas (UCPel), Pelotas, RS, Brazil
| | - Halley M Pontes
- Division of Psychology, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health, University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia.,The International Cyberpsychology and Addictions Research Laboratory (iCARL), University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia
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Stavropoulos V, Pontes HM, Gomez R, Schivinski B, Griffiths M. Proteus Effect Profiles: how Do they Relate with Disordered Gaming Behaviours? Psychiatr Q 2020; 91:615-628. [PMID: 32140972 DOI: 10.1007/s11126-020-09727-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Gamers represent themselves in online gaming worlds through their avatars. The term "Proteus Effect" (PE) defines the potential influences of the gamers' avatars on their demeanour, perception and conduct and has been linked with excessive gaming. There is a significant lack of knowledge regarding likely distinct PE profiles and whether these could be differentially implicated with disordered gaming. A normative group of 1022 World of Warcraft (WoW) gamers were assessed in the present study (Mean age = 28.60 years). The Proteus Effect Scale (PES) was used to evaluate the possible avatar effect on gamers' conduct, and the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short-Form was used to examine gaming disorder behaviors. Latent class profiling resulted in three distinct PE classes, 'non-influenced-gamers' (NIGs), 'perception-cognition-influenced-gamers' (PCIGs), and 'emotion-behaviour-influenced-gamers' (EBIGs). The NIGs reported low rates across all PES items. The PCIGs indicated higher avatar influence in their perception-experience but did not report being affected emotionally. The EBIGs indicated significantly higher avatar influence in their emotion and behaviour than the other two classes but reported stability in their perception of aspects independent of their avatar. Gaming disorder behaviours were reduced for the NIGs and progressively increased for the PCIGs and the EBIGs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Halley M Pontes
- University of Tasmania, School of Psychological Sciences, Newnham Campus, Building O, Launceston, TAS, 7250, Australia.,The International Cyberpsychology and Addictions Research Laboratory (iCARL), University of Tasmania, Launceston, TAS, 7250, Australia
| | - Rapson Gomez
- Federation University Australia, Ballarat, Australia
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Stavropoulos V, Gomez R, Mueller A, Yucel M, Griffiths M. User-avatar bond profiles: How do they associate with disordered gaming? Addict Behav 2020; 103:106245. [PMID: 31891834 DOI: 10.1016/j.addbeh.2019.106245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2019] [Revised: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 11/23/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
AIMS The avatar constitutes the in-game representation of the gamer. Although aspects of the user-avatar bond (UAB) have been associated with disordered gaming, there is a need for clearer understanding concerning the impact of potential UAB profiles. METHODS To address this need, the present study recruited a normative sample of 1022 World of Warcraft (WoW) players (Mage = 28.55 years, SD = 9.90). Participants completed the User-Avatar Questionnaire (to assess UAB aspects such as identification, immersion, and compensation), the Proteus-Effect Scale (to assess transference of the avatar's behaviour in real life), and the Internet Gaming Disorder Scale-Short-Form (to assess disordered gaming). RESULTS Latent class analysis indicated the existence of three UAB profiles, 'differentiated gamers' (DGs), 'identified gamers' (IGs) and 'fused gamers' (FGs). The DGs were characterized by low scores across all UAB aspects. The IGs did not report significant Proteus Effect (PE) or immersion behaviours, and despite being more identified with their avatar, did not significantly compensate through it. The FGs presented with higher PE, immersion, and compensation, although they did not significantly identify with their avatars, possibly due to having idealized them. Disordered gaming behaviours were significantly lower for the DGs and sequentially higher for the IGs and the FGs. Preoccupation and mood modification behaviours related to gaming disorder were distinctively associated with FGs. CONCLUSION Disordered gaming assessment and treatment implications of the UAB profiles are discussed.
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Stavropoulos V, Dumble E, Cokorilo S, Griffiths MD, Pontes HM. The Physical, Emotional, and Identity User-Avatar Association with Disordered Gaming: A Pilot Study. Int J Ment Health Addict 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s11469-019-00136-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Internet gaming disorder (IGD) is a rapidly expanding psychopathological manifestation necessitating further research and clinical attention. Although recent research has investigated relationships between user-avatar and excessive gaming, little is known about the interplay between IGD and avatar self-presence and its dimensions (i.e., the physical, emotional, and identity bond developed between the user and the in-game character). The aim of the present pilot study was twofold: (i) to investigate the associations between physical, emotional, and identity aspects of self-presence associate and IGD severity, and (ii) to assess IGD variations longitudinally in relation to the three dimensions of self-presence (i.e., proto-self-presence, core-self-presence, and extended-self-presence). The sample comprised 125 young adults aged between 18 and 29 years who underwent either (i) three offline measurements (1 month apart, over 3 months) or (ii) a cross-sectional online measurement. Regression and latent growth analysis indicated that the initial intensity of the physical, emotional, and identity self-presence aspects associated with IGD severity, but not to its longitudinal change. Overall, young adult gamers may exhibit higher IGD risk and severity when the experience of physical, emotional, and identity bonding with their in-game character is pronounced. The implications surrounding treatment and preventative policy recommendations are further discussed.
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Stavropoulos V, Bamford L, Beard C, Gomez R, Griffiths MD. Test-Retest Measurement Invariance of the Nine-Item Internet Gaming Disorder Scale in Two Countries: A Preliminary Longitudinal Study. Int J Ment Health Addict 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s11469-019-00099-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
AbstractThe reliable longitudinal assessment of Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) behaviors is viewed by many as a pivotal clinical and research priority. The present study is the first to examine the test-retest measurement invariance of IGD ratings, as assessed using the short-form nine-item Internet Gaming Disorder Scale (IGDS9-SF) over an approximate period of 3 months, across two normative national samples. Differences referring to the mode of the data collection (face-to-face [FtF] vs. online) were also considered. Two sequences of successive multiple group confirmatory factor analyses (CFAs) were calculated to longitudinally assess the psychometric properties of the IGDS9-SF using emergent adults, gamers from (i) the United States of America (USA; N = 120, 18–29 years, Meanage = 22.35, 51.6% male) assessed online and; and (ii) Australia (N = 61, 18–31 years, Meanage = 23.02, 75.4% male) assessed FtF. Configural invariance was established across both samples, and metric and scalar invariances were supported for the USA sample. Interestingly, only partial metric (factor loadings for Items 2 and 3 non-invariant) and partial scalar invariance (i.e., all thresholds of Items 1 and 2, and thresholds 1, 3, for Items 4, 6, 8, and 9 non-invariant) were established for the Australian sample. Findings are discussed in the light of using IGDS9-SF to assess and monitor IGD behaviors over time in both in clinical and non-clinical settings.
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Hu E, Stavropoulos V, Anderson A, Clarke M, Beard C, Papapetrou S, Gomez R. Assessing Online Flow Across Cultures: A Two-Fold Measurement Invariance Study. Front Psychol 2019; 10:407. [PMID: 30930806 PMCID: PMC6428900 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2018] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The association between online Flow and Internet Gaming Disorder (IGD) has attracted significant attention. Despite the consensus that online Flow plays a pivotal role in the development of IGD and other Internet addictive behaviors, there has been a lack of consistency in measurement scales used to assess online Flow. Even widely used measures of online Flow have not been psychometrically assessed across culturally diverse populations of gamers. Such an assessment would enhance the accuracy of cross-cultural comparisons. Attending to this need, the present study assessed the psychometric properties of the binary coded (i.e., Yes, No) Online Flow Questionnaire (OFQ), while concurrently taking into consideration country, age, language, and mode of data collection (online or face-to-face) differences. Two sequences of successive multiple group confirmatory factor analyses were used to assess the psychometric properties of the OFQ, between: (a) emergent adults from the United States of America (N = 482, Mage = 25.23, SD = 2.746) and Australia (N = 168, Mage = 23.55, SD = 3.37) and (b) adolescents from Greece (N = 1579, Mage = 16.12, SD = 0.849) and Cyprus (N = 1372, Mage = 15.54, SD = 0.656). Configural and partial metric invariance were confirmed between the United States and Australian samples. For the Greek and Cypriot samples, results indicated full configural and metric invariance. These results provide initial information to researchers and clinicians of the extent to which the OFQ maintains its consistency when used across cultures and invite for further cross-cultural studies in the field. Implications, as well as limitations, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elwin Hu
- School of Psychology, Counselling and Psychotherapy, Cairnmillar Institute, Hawthorn East, VIC, Australia
| | - Vasileios Stavropoulos
- School of Psychology, Counselling and Psychotherapy, Cairnmillar Institute, Hawthorn East, VIC, Australia
| | - Alastair Anderson
- School of Psychology, Counselling and Psychotherapy, Cairnmillar Institute, Hawthorn East, VIC, Australia
| | - Michael Clarke
- School of Psychology, Counselling and Psychotherapy, Cairnmillar Institute, Hawthorn East, VIC, Australia
| | - Charlotte Beard
- Department of Psychology, Palo Alto University, Palo Alto, CA, United States
| | | | - Rapson Gomez
- School of Health and Life Sciences, Federation University, Mount Helen, VIC, Australia
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