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Agnishwaran B, Manivasagam G, Udduttula A. Molecularly Imprinted Polymers: Shaping the Future of Early-Stage Bone Loss Detection-A Review. ACS OMEGA 2024; 9:8730-8742. [PMID: 38434830 PMCID: PMC10905706 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.3c08977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
Osteoporosis is the deterioration of bone mineral density (BMD) because of an imbalance between bone resorption and formation, which might happen due to lots of factors like age, hormonal imbalance, and several others. While this occurrence is prevalent in both genders, it is more common in women, especially postmenopausal women. It is an asymptomatic disease that is underlying until the first incidence of a fracture. The bone is weakened, making it more susceptible to fracture. Even a low trauma can result in a fracture, making osteoporosis an even more alarming disease. These fractures can sometimes be fatal or can make the patient bedridden. Osteoporosis is an understudied disease, and there are certain limitations in diagnosing and early-stage detection of this condition. The standard method of dual X-ray absorptiometry can be used to some extent and can be detected in standard radiographs after the deterioration of a significant amount of bone mass. Clinically assessing osteoporosis using biomarkers can still be challenging, as clinical tests can be expensive and cannot be accessed by most of the general population. In addition, manufacturing antibodies specific to these biomarkers can be a challenging, time-consuming, and expensive method. As an alternative to these antibodies, molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) can be used in the detection of these biomarkers. This Review provides a comprehensive exploration of bone formation, resorption, and remodeling processes, linking them to the pathophysiology of osteoporosis. It details biomarker-based detection and diagnosis methods, with a focus on MIPs for sensing CTX-1, NTX-1, and other biomarkers. The discussion compares traditional clinical practices with MIP-based sensors, revealing comparable sensitivity with identified limitations. Additionally, the Review contrasts antibody-functionalized sensors with MIPs. Finally, our Review concludes by highlighting the potential of MIPs in future early-stage osteoporosis detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bala Agnishwaran
- Centre
for Biomaterials, Cellular and Molecular Theranostics (CBCMT), Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore-632014, Tamil Nadu, India
- School
of Bio Sciences and Technology (SBST), Vellore
Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore-632014, Tamil
Nadu, India
| | - Geetha Manivasagam
- Centre
for Biomaterials, Cellular and Molecular Theranostics (CBCMT), Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore-632014, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Anjaneyulu Udduttula
- Centre
for Biomaterials, Cellular and Molecular Theranostics (CBCMT), Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore-632014, Tamil Nadu, India
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Awan D, Bashir S, Khan S, Al-Bawri SS, Dalarsson M. UWB Antenna with Enhanced Directivity for Applications in Microwave Medical Imaging. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:1315. [PMID: 38400473 PMCID: PMC10891910 DOI: 10.3390/s24041315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Microwave medical imaging (MMI) is experiencing a surge in research interest, with antenna performance emerging as a key area for improvement. This work addresses this need by enhancing the directivity of a compact UWB antenna using a Yagi-Uda-inspired reflector antenna. The proposed reflector-loaded antenna (RLA) exhibited significant gain and directivity improvements compared to a non-directional reference antenna. When analyzed for MMI applications, the RLA showed a maximum increase of 4 dBi in the realized gain and of 14.26 dB in the transmitted field strength within a human breast model. Moreover, it preserved the shape of time-domain input signals with a high correlation factor of 94.86%. To further validate our approach, another non-directional antenna with proven head imaging capabilities was modified with a reflector, achieving similar directivity enhancements. The combined results demonstrate the feasibility of RLAs for improved performance in MMI systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawar Awan
- Department of Electrical Technology, University of Technology Nowshera, Nowshera 24170, Pakistan;
- Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar, Peshawar 25120, Pakistan;
| | - Shahid Bashir
- Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar, Peshawar 25120, Pakistan;
| | - Shahid Khan
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, COMSATS University Islamabad, Abbottabad Campus, Abbottabad 22060, Pakistan;
| | - Samir Salem Al-Bawri
- Space Science Center, Institute of Climate Change, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi 43600, Malaysia;
| | - Mariana Dalarsson
- School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SE 100-44 Stockholm, Sweden
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Amin B, Rehman MRU, Farooq M, Elahi A, Donaghey K, Wijns W, Shahzad A, Vazquez P. Optimizing Cardiac Wireless Implant Communication: A Feasibility Study on Selecting the Frequency and Matching Medium. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:3411. [PMID: 37050471 PMCID: PMC10098910 DOI: 10.3390/s23073411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Revised: 03/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Cardiac wireless implantable medical devices (CWIMD) have brought a paradigm shift in monitoring and treating various cardiac conditions, including heart failure, arrhythmias, and hypertension. One of the key elements in CWIMD is the implant antenna which uses radio frequency (RF) technology to wirelessly communicate and transmit data to external devices. However, wireless communication with a deeply implanted antenna using RF can be challenging due to the significant loss of electromagnetic (EM) signal at the air-skin interface, and second, due to the propagation and reflection of EM waves from different tissue boundaries. The air-skin interface loss of the EM wave is pronounced due to the absence of a matching medium. This paper investigates the EM propagation losses in the human body and presents a choice of optimal frequency for the design of the cardiac implant antenna and the dielectric properties of the matching medium. First, the dielectric properties of all tissues present in the human thorax including skin, fat, muscle, cartilage, and heart are analyzed as a function of frequency to study the EM wave absorption at different frequencies. Second, the penetration of EM waves inside the biological tissues is analyzed as a function of frequency. Third, a transmission line (TL) formalism approach is adopted to examine the optimal frequency band for designing a cardiac implant antenna and the matching medium for the air-skin interface. Finally, experimental validation is performed at two ISM frequencies, 433 MHz and 915 MHz, selected from the optimal frequency band (0.4-1.5 GHz) suggested by our analytical investigation. For experimental validation, two off-the-shelf flexible dipole antennas operating at selected ISM frequencies were used. The numerical and experimental findings suggested that for the specific application of a cardiac implant with a penetration depth of 7-17 cm, the most effective frequency range for operation is within 0.4-1.5 GHz. The findings based on the dielectric properties of thorax tissues, the penetration depth of EM waves, and the optimal frequency band have provided valuable information on developing and optimizing CWIMDs for cardiac care applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bilal Amin
- Smart Sensors Laboratory, College of Medicine, Nursing Health Sciences, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
- Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
| | - Muhammad Riaz ur Rehman
- Smart Sensors Laboratory, College of Medicine, Nursing Health Sciences, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
| | - Muhammad Farooq
- Smart Sensors Laboratory, College of Medicine, Nursing Health Sciences, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
| | - Adnan Elahi
- Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
| | - Kevin Donaghey
- Aurigen Medical, Atlantic Technological University (ATU) Innovation Hub, H91 FD73 Galway, Ireland
| | - William Wijns
- Smart Sensors Laboratory, College of Medicine, Nursing Health Sciences, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
| | - Atif Shahzad
- Smart Sensors Laboratory, College of Medicine, Nursing Health Sciences, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
- Centre for Systems Modeling and Quantitative Biomedicine, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Patricia Vazquez
- Smart Sensors Laboratory, College of Medicine, Nursing Health Sciences, University of Galway, H91 TK33 Galway, Ireland
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