1
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Sambre P, Ho JCS, Parikh AN. Intravesicular Solute Delivery and Surface Area Regulation in Giant Unilamellar Vesicles Driven by Cycles of Osmotic Stresses. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:3250-3261. [PMID: 38266489 PMCID: PMC10859933 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c11679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 12/26/2023] [Accepted: 12/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
Phospholipid bilayers are dynamic cellular components that undergo constant changes in their topology, facilitating a broad diversity of physiological functions including endo- and exocytosis, cell division, and intracellular trafficking. These shape transformations consume energy, supplied invariably by the activity of proteins. Here, we show that cycles of oppositely directed osmotic stresses─unassisted by any protein activity─can induce well-defined remodeling of giant unilamellar vesicles, minimally recapitulating the phenomenologies of surface area homeostasis and macropinocytosis. We find that a stress cycle consisting of deflationary hypertonic stress followed by an inflationary hypotonic one prompts an elaborate sequence of membrane shape changes ultimately transporting molecular cargo from the outside into the intravesicular milieu. The initial osmotic deflation produces microscopic spherical invaginations. During the subsequent inflation, the first subpopulation contributes area to the swelling membrane, thereby providing a means for surface area regulation and tensional homeostasis. The second subpopulation vesiculates into the lumens of the mother vesicles, producing pinocytic vesicles. Remarkably, the gradients of solute concentrations between the GUV and the daughter pinocytic vesicles create cascades of water current, inducing pulsatory transient poration that enable solute exchange between the buds and the GUV interior. This results in an efficient water-flux-mediated delivery of molecular cargo across the membrane boundary. Our findings suggest a primitive physical mechanism for communication and transport across protocellular compartments driven only by osmotic stresses. They also suggest plausible physical routes for intravesicular, and possibly intracellular, delivery of ions, solutes, and molecular cargo stimulated simply by cycles of osmotic currents of water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pallavi
D. Sambre
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, University
of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - James C. S. Ho
- Singapore
Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 59 Nanyang Drive, 636921 Singapore
- Institute
for Digital Molecular Analytics and Science, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, 637551Singapore
| | - Atul N. Parikh
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, University
of California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, California 95616, United States
- Singapore
Centre for Environmental Life Sciences Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 59 Nanyang Drive, 636921 Singapore
- Institute
for Digital Molecular Analytics and Science, Nanyang Technological University, 60 Nanyang Drive, 637551Singapore
- Department
of Biomedical Engineering, University of
California, Davis, One Shields Avenue, Davis, California 95616, United States
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2
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Daga KR, Feray Çoşar M, Lowenkron A, Hao J, Rouillard J. Environmental Stability and Its Importance for the Emergence of Darwinian Evolution. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:1960. [PMID: 37895342 PMCID: PMC10608181 DOI: 10.3390/life13101960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The emergence of Darwinian evolution represents a central point in the history of life as we know it. However, it is generally assumed that the environments in which life appeared were hydrothermal environments, with highly variable conditions in terms of pH, temperature or redox levels. Are evolutionary processes favored to appear in such settings, where the target of biological adaptation changes over time? How would the first evolving populations compete with non-evolving populations? Using a numerical model, we explore the effect of environmental variation on the outcome of the competition between evolving and non-evolving populations of protocells. Our study found that, while evolving protocells consistently outcompete non-evolving populations in stable environments, they are outcompeted in variable environments when environmental variations occur on a timescale similar to the average duration of a generation. This is due to the energetic burden represented by adaptation to the wrong environmental conditions. Since the timescale of temperature variation in natural hydrothermal settings overlaps with the average prokaryote generation time, the current work indicates that a solution must have been found by early life to overcome this threshold.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khushi R. Daga
- Blue Marble Space Institute of Science, Seattle, WA 98104, USA; (K.R.D.); (M.F.Ç.); (A.L.)
| | - Mensura Feray Çoşar
- Blue Marble Space Institute of Science, Seattle, WA 98104, USA; (K.R.D.); (M.F.Ç.); (A.L.)
| | - Abigail Lowenkron
- Blue Marble Space Institute of Science, Seattle, WA 98104, USA; (K.R.D.); (M.F.Ç.); (A.L.)
| | - Jihua Hao
- Deep Space Exploration Laboratory/CAS Key Laboratory of Crust-Mantle Materials and Environments, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
| | - Joti Rouillard
- Blue Marble Space Institute of Science, Seattle, WA 98104, USA; (K.R.D.); (M.F.Ç.); (A.L.)
- Deep Space Exploration Laboratory/CAS Key Laboratory of Crust-Mantle Materials and Environments, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
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3
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Lin AJ, Sihorwala AZ, Belardi B. Engineering Tissue-Scale Properties with Synthetic Cells: Forging One from Many. ACS Synth Biol 2023; 12:1889-1907. [PMID: 37417657 PMCID: PMC11017731 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.3c00061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/08/2023]
Abstract
In metazoans, living cells achieve capabilities beyond individual cell functionality by assembling into multicellular tissue structures. These higher-order structures represent dynamic, heterogeneous, and responsive systems that have evolved to regenerate and coordinate their actions over large distances. Recent advances in constructing micrometer-sized vesicles, or synthetic cells, now point to a future where construction of synthetic tissue can be pursued, a boon to pressing material needs in biomedical implants, drug delivery systems, adhesives, filters, and storage devices, among others. To fully realize the potential of synthetic tissue, inspiration has been and will continue to be drawn from new molecular findings on its natural counterpart. In this review, we describe advances in introducing tissue-scale features into synthetic cell assemblies. Beyond mere complexation, synthetic cells have been fashioned with a variety of natural and engineered molecular components that serve as initial steps toward morphological control and patterning, intercellular communication, replication, and responsiveness in synthetic tissue. Particular attention has been paid to the dynamics, spatial constraints, and mechanical strengths of interactions that drive the synthesis of this next-generation material, describing how multiple synthetic cells can act as one.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander J Lin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Ahmed Z Sihorwala
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Brian Belardi
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
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4
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Tran MP, Chatterjee R, Dreher Y, Fichtler J, Jahnke K, Hilbert L, Zaburdaev V, Göpfrich K. A DNA Segregation Module for Synthetic Cells. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2023; 19:e2202711. [PMID: 35971190 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202202711] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2022] [Revised: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The bottom-up construction of an artificial cell requires the realization of synthetic cell division. Significant progress has been made toward reliable compartment division, yet mechanisms to segregate the DNA-encoded informational content are still in their infancy. Herein, droplets of DNA Y-motifs are formed by liquid-liquid phase separation. DNA droplet segregation is obtained by cleaving the linking component between two populations of DNA Y-motifs. In addition to enzymatic cleavage, photolabile sites are introduced for spatio-temporally controlled DNA segregation in bulk as well as in cell-sized water-in-oil droplets and giant unilamellar lipid vesicles (GUVs). Notably, the segregation process is slower in confinement than in bulk. The ionic strength of the solution and the nucleobase sequences are employed to regulate the segregation dynamics. The experimental results are corroborated in a lattice-based theoretical model which mimics the interactions between the DNA Y-motif populations. Altogether, engineered DNA droplets, reconstituted in GUVs, can represent a strategy toward a DNA segregation module within bottom-up assembled synthetic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mai P Tran
- Biophysical Engineering Group, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstr. 29, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Biosciences, Heidelberg University, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Rakesh Chatterjee
- Department of Biology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Cauerstraße 11, 91058, Erlangen, Germany
- Max-Planck-Zentrum für Physik und Medizin, 91058, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Yannik Dreher
- Biophysical Engineering Group, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstr. 29, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Heidelberg University, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Julius Fichtler
- Biophysical Engineering Group, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstr. 29, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Kevin Jahnke
- Biophysical Engineering Group, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstr. 29, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Heidelberg University, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Lennart Hilbert
- Institute of Biological and Chemical Systems, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
- Zoological Institute, Department of Systems Biology / Bioinformatics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Fritz-Haber-Weg 4, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Vasily Zaburdaev
- Department of Biology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Cauerstraße 11, 91058, Erlangen, Germany
- Max-Planck-Zentrum für Physik und Medizin, 91058, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Kerstin Göpfrich
- Biophysical Engineering Group, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstr. 29, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Heidelberg University, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
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5
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The archaeal Cdv cell division system. Trends Microbiol 2023; 31:601-615. [PMID: 36658033 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2022.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Revised: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The Cdv system is the protein machinery that performs cell division and other membrane-deforming processes in a subset of archaea. Evolutionarily, the system is closely related to the eukaryotic ESCRT machinery, with which it shares many structural and functional similarities. Since its first description 15 years ago, the understanding of the Cdv system progressed rather slowly, but recent discoveries sparked renewed interest and insights. The emerging physical picture appears to be that CdvA acts as a membrane anchor, CdvB as a scaffold that localizes division to the mid-cell position, CdvB1 and CvdB2 as the actual constriction machinery, and CdvC as the ATPase that detaches Cdv proteins from the membrane. This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the research done on Cdv and explains how this relatively understudied machinery acts to perform its cell-division function. Understanding of the Cdv system helps to better grasp the biophysics and evolution of archaea, and furthermore provides new opportunities for the bottom-up building of a divisome for synthetic cells.
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6
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Imai M, Sakuma Y, Kurisu M, Walde P. From vesicles toward protocells and minimal cells. SOFT MATTER 2022; 18:4823-4849. [PMID: 35722879 DOI: 10.1039/d1sm01695d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
In contrast to ordinary condensed matter systems, "living systems" are unique. They are based on molecular compartments that reproduce themselves through (i) an uptake of ingredients and energy from the environment, and (ii) spatially and timely coordinated internal chemical transformations. These occur on the basis of instructions encoded in information molecules (DNAs). Life originated on Earth about 4 billion years ago as self-organised systems of inorganic compounds and organic molecules including macromolecules (e.g. nucleic acids and proteins) and low molar mass amphiphiles (lipids). Before the first living systems emerged from non-living forms of matter, functional molecules and dynamic molecular assemblies must have been formed as prebiotic soft matter systems. These hypothetical cell-like compartment systems often are called "protocells". Other systems that are considered as bridging units between non-living and living systems are called "minimal cells". They are synthetic, autonomous and sustainable reproducing compartment systems, but their constituents are not limited to prebiotic substances. In this review, we focus on both membrane-bounded (vesicular) protocells and minimal cells, and provide a membrane physics background which helps to understand how morphological transformations of vesicle systems might have happened and how vesicle reproduction might be coupled with metabolic reactions and information molecules. This research, which bridges matter and life, is a great challenge in which soft matter physics, systems chemistry, and synthetic biology must take joined efforts to better understand how the transformation of protocells into living systems might have occurred at the origin of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masayuki Imai
- Department of Physics, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, 6-3 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba, Sendai 980-8578, Japan.
| | - Yuka Sakuma
- Department of Physics, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, 6-3 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba, Sendai 980-8578, Japan.
| | - Minoru Kurisu
- Department of Physics, Graduate School of Science, Tohoku University, 6-3 Aoba, Aramaki, Aoba, Sendai 980-8578, Japan.
| | - Peter Walde
- Department of Materials, ETH Zürich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 5, CH-8093 Zürich, Switzerland
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7
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Gözen I, Köksal ES, Põldsalu I, Xue L, Spustova K, Pedrueza-Villalmanzo E, Ryskulov R, Meng F, Jesorka A. Protocells: Milestones and Recent Advances. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2022; 18:e2106624. [PMID: 35322554 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202106624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2021] [Revised: 02/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The origin of life is still one of humankind's great mysteries. At the transition between nonliving and living matter, protocells, initially featureless aggregates of abiotic matter, gain the structure and functions necessary to fulfill the criteria of life. Research addressing protocells as a central element in this transition is diverse and increasingly interdisciplinary. The authors review current protocell concepts and research directions, address milestones, challenges and existing hypotheses in the context of conditions on the early Earth, and provide a concise overview of current protocell research methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irep Gözen
- Centre for Molecular Medicine Norway, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, 0318, Norway
| | - Elif Senem Köksal
- Centre for Molecular Medicine Norway, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, 0318, Norway
| | - Inga Põldsalu
- Centre for Molecular Medicine Norway, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, 0318, Norway
| | - Lin Xue
- Centre for Molecular Medicine Norway, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, 0318, Norway
| | - Karolina Spustova
- Centre for Molecular Medicine Norway, Faculty of Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, 0318, Norway
| | - Esteban Pedrueza-Villalmanzo
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, SE-412 96, Sweden
- Department of Physics, University of Gothenburg, Universitetsplatsen 1, Gothenburg, 40530, Sweden
| | - Ruslan Ryskulov
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, SE-412 96, Sweden
| | - Fanda Meng
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, SE-412 96, Sweden
- School of Basic Medicine, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Jinan, 250000, China
| | - Aldo Jesorka
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, Göteborg, SE-412 96, Sweden
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8
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Liu X, Stenhammar J, Wennerström H, Sparr E. Vesicles Balance Osmotic Stress with Bending Energy That Can Be Released to Form Daughter Vesicles. J Phys Chem Lett 2022; 13:498-507. [PMID: 35005979 PMCID: PMC8785185 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.1c03369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 12/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The bending energy of the lipid membrane is central to biological processes involving vesicles, such as endocytosis and exocytosis. To illustrate the role of bending energy in these processes, we study the response of single-component giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) subjected to external osmotic stress by glucose addition. For osmotic pressures exceeding 0.15 atm, an abrupt shape change from spherical to prolate occurs, showing that the osmotic pressure is balanced by the free energy of membrane bending. After equilibration, the external glucose solution was exchanged for pure water, yielding rapid formation of monodisperse daughter vesicles inside the GUVs through an endocytosis-like process. Our theoretical analysis shows that this process requires significant free energies stored in the deformed membrane to be kinetically allowed. The results indicate that bending energies stored in GUVs are much higher than previously implicated, with potential consequences for vesicle fusion/fission and the osmotic regulation in living cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyan Liu
- Physical Chemistry, Lund University, 221 00 Lund, Sweden
| | | | | | - Emma Sparr
- Physical Chemistry, Lund University, 221 00 Lund, Sweden
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9
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Wang C, Yang J, Lu Y. Modularize and Unite: Toward Creating a Functional Artificial Cell. Front Mol Biosci 2021; 8:781986. [PMID: 34912849 PMCID: PMC8667554 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2021.781986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
An artificial cell is a simplified model of a living system, bringing breakthroughs into both basic life science and applied research. The bottom-up strategy instructs the construction of an artificial cell from nonliving materials, which could be complicated and interdisciplinary considering the inherent complexity of living cells. Although significant progress has been achieved in the past 2 decades, the area is still facing some problems, such as poor compatibility with complex bio-systems, instability, and low standardization of the construction method. In this review, we propose creating artificial cells through the integration of different functional modules. Furthermore, we divide the function requirements of an artificial cell into four essential parts (metabolism, energy supplement, proliferation, and communication) and discuss the present researches. Then we propose that the compartment and the reestablishment of the communication system would be essential for the reasonable integration of functional modules. Although enormous challenges remain, the modular construction would facilitate the simplification and standardization of an artificial cell toward a natural living system. This function-based strategy would also broaden the application of artificial cells and represent the steps of imitating and surpassing nature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Wang
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biocatalysis, Department of Chemical Engineering, Ministry of Education, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Junzhu Yang
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biocatalysis, Department of Chemical Engineering, Ministry of Education, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
| | - Yuan Lu
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Biocatalysis, Department of Chemical Engineering, Ministry of Education, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China
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10
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Olivi L, Berger M, Creyghton RNP, De Franceschi N, Dekker C, Mulder BM, Claassens NJ, Ten Wolde PR, van der Oost J. Towards a synthetic cell cycle. Nat Commun 2021; 12:4531. [PMID: 34312383 PMCID: PMC8313558 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-24772-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Recent developments in synthetic biology may bring the bottom-up generation of a synthetic cell within reach. A key feature of a living synthetic cell is a functional cell cycle, in which DNA replication and segregation as well as cell growth and division are well integrated. Here, we describe different approaches to recreate these processes in a synthetic cell, based on natural systems and/or synthetic alternatives. Although some individual machineries have recently been established, their integration and control in a synthetic cell cycle remain to be addressed. In this Perspective, we discuss potential paths towards an integrated synthetic cell cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Olivi
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | | | | | - Nicola De Franceschi
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Cees Dekker
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
| | | | - Nico J Claassens
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | | | - John van der Oost
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
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11
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Abstract
A major goal of synthetic biology is to understand the transition between non-living matter and life. The bottom-up development of an artificial cell would provide a minimal system with which to study the border between chemistry and biology. So far, a fully synthetic cell has remained elusive, but chemists are progressing towards this goal by reconstructing cellular subsystems. Cell boundaries, likely in the form of lipid membranes, were necessary for the emergence of life. In addition to providing a protective barrier between cellular cargo and the external environment, lipid compartments maintain homeostasis with other subsystems to regulate cellular processes. In this Review, we examine different chemical approaches to making cell-mimetic compartments. Synthetic strategies to drive membrane formation and function, including bioorthogonal ligations, dissipative self-assembly and reconstitution of biochemical pathways, are discussed. Chemical strategies aim to recreate the interactions between lipid membranes, the external environment and internal biomolecules, and will clarify our understanding of life at the interface of chemistry and biology.
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12
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ESCRT-III induces phase separation in model membranes prior to budding and causes invagination of the liquid-ordered phase. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2021; 1863:183689. [PMID: 34224704 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2021.183689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2020] [Revised: 06/05/2021] [Accepted: 06/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Membrane fission triggered by the endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) is an important process observed in several pathogenic and non-pathogenic cellular events. From a synthetic-biology viewpoint, ESCRT proteins represent an interesting machinery for the construction of cell mimetic sub-compartments produced by fission. Since their discovery, the studies on ESCRT-III-mediated action, have mainly focused on protein dynamics, ignoring the role of lipid organization and membrane phase state. Recently, it has been suggested that membrane buds formed by the action of ESCRT-III are generated from transient microdomains in endosomal membranes. However, the interplay between membrane domain formation and ESCRT remodeling pathways has not been investigated. Here, giant unilamellar vesicles made of ternary lipid mixtures, either homogeneous in phase or exhibiting liquid-ordered/liquid-disordered phase coexistence, were employed as a model membrane system. These vesicles were incubated with purified recombinant ESCRT-III proteins from the parasite Entamoeba histolytica. In homogeneous membranes, we observe that EhVps32 can trigger domain formation while EhVps20 preferentially co-localizes in the liquid disordered phase. The addition of EhVps24 appears to induce the formation of intraluminal vesicles produced from the liquid-ordered phase. In phase separated membranes, the intraluminal vesicles are also generated from the liquid-ordered phase and presumably emerge from the phase boundary region. Our findings reinforce the hypothesis that ESCRT-mediated remodeling depends on the membrane phase state. Furthermore, the obtained results point to a potential synthetic biology approach for establishing eukaryotic mimics of artificial cells with microcompartments of specific membrane composition, which can also differ from that of the mother vesicle.
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13
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Dreher Y, Jahnke K, Bobkova E, Spatz JP, Göpfrich K. Division and Regrowth of Phase‐Separated Giant Unilamellar Vesicles**. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202014174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Yannik Dreher
- Biophysical Engineering Group Max Planck Institute for Medical Research Jahnstraße 29 69120 Heidelberg Germany
- Department of Physics and Astronomy Heidelberg University 69120 Heidelberg Germany
| | - Kevin Jahnke
- Biophysical Engineering Group Max Planck Institute for Medical Research Jahnstraße 29 69120 Heidelberg Germany
- Department of Physics and Astronomy Heidelberg University 69120 Heidelberg Germany
| | - Elizaveta Bobkova
- Biophysical Engineering Group Max Planck Institute for Medical Research Jahnstraße 29 69120 Heidelberg Germany
- Department of Physics and Astronomy Heidelberg University 69120 Heidelberg Germany
| | - Joachim P. Spatz
- Department of Cellular Biophysics Max Planck Institute for Medical Research Jahnstraße 29 69120 Heidelberg Germany
- Institute for Molecular Systems Engineering (IMSE) Heidelberg University Im Neuenheimer Feld 225 69120 Heidelberg Germany
- Max Planck School Matter to Life Jahnstraße 29 69120 Heidelberg Germany
| | - Kerstin Göpfrich
- Biophysical Engineering Group Max Planck Institute for Medical Research Jahnstraße 29 69120 Heidelberg Germany
- Department of Physics and Astronomy Heidelberg University 69120 Heidelberg Germany
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14
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Pelletier JF, Sun L, Wise KS, Assad-Garcia N, Karas BJ, Deerinck TJ, Ellisman MH, Mershin A, Gershenfeld N, Chuang RY, Glass JI, Strychalski EA. Genetic requirements for cell division in a genomically minimal cell. Cell 2021; 184:2430-2440.e16. [PMID: 33784496 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2021.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2018] [Revised: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Genomically minimal cells, such as JCVI-syn3.0, offer a platform to clarify genes underlying core physiological processes. Although this minimal cell includes genes essential for population growth, the physiology of its single cells remained uncharacterized. To investigate striking morphological variation in JCVI-syn3.0 cells, we present an approach to characterize cell propagation and determine genes affecting cell morphology. Microfluidic chemostats allowed observation of intrinsic cell dynamics that result in irregular morphologies. A genome with 19 genes not retained in JCVI-syn3.0 generated JCVI-syn3A, which presents morphology similar to that of JCVI-syn1.0. We further identified seven of these 19 genes, including two known cell division genes, ftsZ and sepF, a hydrolase of unknown substrate, and four genes that encode membrane-associated proteins of unknown function, which are required together to restore a phenotype similar to that of JCVI-syn1.0. This result emphasizes the polygenic nature of cell division and morphology in a genomically minimal cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- James F Pelletier
- Center for Bits and Atoms, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899, USA
| | - Lijie Sun
- J. Craig Venter Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Kim S Wise
- J. Craig Venter Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | | | - Bogumil J Karas
- Department of Biochemistry, Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5C1, Canada
| | - Thomas J Deerinck
- National Center for Microscopy and Imaging Research, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Mark H Ellisman
- National Center for Microscopy and Imaging Research, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Andreas Mershin
- Center for Bits and Atoms, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Neil Gershenfeld
- Center for Bits and Atoms, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | | | - John I Glass
- J. Craig Venter Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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15
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Dreher Y, Jahnke K, Bobkova E, Spatz JP, Göpfrich K. Division and Regrowth of Phase-Separated Giant Unilamellar Vesicles*. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 60:10661-10669. [PMID: 33355974 PMCID: PMC8252472 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202014174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2020] [Revised: 12/13/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Success in the bottom‐up assembly of synthetic cells will depend on strategies for the division of protocellular compartments. Here, we describe the controlled division of phase‐separated giant unilamellar lipid vesicles (GUVs). We derive an analytical model based on the vesicle geometry, which makes four quantitative predictions that we verify experimentally. We find that the osmolarity ratio required for division is 2
, independent of the GUV size, while asymmetric division happens at lower osmolarity ratios. Remarkably, we show that a suitable osmolarity change can be triggered by water evaporation, enzymatic decomposition of sucrose or light‐triggered uncaging of CMNB‐fluorescein. The latter provides full spatiotemporal control, such that a target GUV undergoes division whereas the surrounding GUVs remain unaffected. Finally, we grow phase‐separated vesicles from single‐phased vesicles by targeted fusion of the opposite lipid type with programmable DNA tags to enable subsequent division cycles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yannik Dreher
- Biophysical Engineering Group, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstraße 29, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.,Department of Physics and Astronomy, Heidelberg University, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Kevin Jahnke
- Biophysical Engineering Group, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstraße 29, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.,Department of Physics and Astronomy, Heidelberg University, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Elizaveta Bobkova
- Biophysical Engineering Group, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstraße 29, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.,Department of Physics and Astronomy, Heidelberg University, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Joachim P Spatz
- Department of Cellular Biophysics, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstraße 29, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.,Institute for Molecular Systems Engineering (IMSE), Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 225, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.,Max Planck School Matter to Life, Jahnstraße 29, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Kerstin Göpfrich
- Biophysical Engineering Group, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstraße 29, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.,Department of Physics and Astronomy, Heidelberg University, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
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16
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Gaut NJ, Adamala KP. Reconstituting Natural Cell Elements in Synthetic Cells. Adv Biol (Weinh) 2021; 5:e2000188. [DOI: 10.1002/adbi.202000188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nathaniel J. Gaut
- Department of Genetics Cell Biology and Development University of Minnesota 420 Washington Ave SE Minneapolis MN 55455 USA
| | - Katarzyna P. Adamala
- Department of Genetics Cell Biology and Development University of Minnesota 420 Washington Ave SE Minneapolis MN 55455 USA
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17
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Wu LJ, Lee S, Park S, Eland LE, Wipat A, Holden S, Errington J. Geometric principles underlying the proliferation of a model cell system. Nat Commun 2020; 11:4149. [PMID: 32811832 PMCID: PMC7434903 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-17988-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Many bacteria can form wall-deficient variants, or L-forms, that divide by a simple mechanism that does not require the FtsZ-based cell division machinery. Here, we use microfluidic systems to probe the growth, chromosome cycle and division mechanism of Bacillus subtilis L-forms. We find that forcing cells into a narrow linear configuration greatly improves the efficiency of cell growth and chromosome segregation. This reinforces the view that L-form division is driven by an excess accumulation of surface area over volume. Cell geometry also plays a dominant role in controlling the relative positions and movement of segregating chromosomes. Furthermore, the presence of the nucleoid appears to influence division both via a cell volume effect and by nucleoid occlusion, even in the absence of FtsZ. Our results emphasise the importance of geometric effects for a range of crucial cell functions, and are of relevance for efforts to develop artificial or minimal cell systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Juan Wu
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Biosciences Institute, Medical School, Newcastle University, Richardson Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4AX, UK.
| | - Seoungjun Lee
- grid.1006.70000 0001 0462 7212Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Biosciences Institute, Medical School, Newcastle University, Richardson Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4AX UK ,grid.13097.3c0000 0001 2322 6764Present Address: Maurice Wohl Clinical Neuroscience Institute, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King’s College London, London, SE5 9RX UK
| | - Sungshic Park
- grid.1006.70000 0001 0462 7212Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Biosciences Institute, Medical School, Newcastle University, Richardson Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4AX UK ,grid.1006.70000 0001 0462 7212Interdisciplinary Computing and Complex BioSystems research group, School of Computing, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE4 5TG UK
| | - Lucy E. Eland
- grid.1006.70000 0001 0462 7212Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Biosciences Institute, Medical School, Newcastle University, Richardson Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4AX UK ,grid.1006.70000 0001 0462 7212Interdisciplinary Computing and Complex BioSystems research group, School of Computing, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE4 5TG UK
| | - Anil Wipat
- grid.1006.70000 0001 0462 7212Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Biosciences Institute, Medical School, Newcastle University, Richardson Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4AX UK ,grid.1006.70000 0001 0462 7212Interdisciplinary Computing and Complex BioSystems research group, School of Computing, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE4 5TG UK
| | - Séamus Holden
- grid.1006.70000 0001 0462 7212Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Biosciences Institute, Medical School, Newcastle University, Richardson Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4AX UK
| | - Jeff Errington
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Biosciences Institute, Medical School, Newcastle University, Richardson Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4AX, UK.
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18
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Tarnopol RL, Bowden S, Hinkle K, Balakrishnan K, Nishii A, Kaczmarek CJ, Pawloski T, Vecchiarelli AG. Lessons from a Minimal Genome: What Are the Essential Organizing Principles of a Cell Built from Scratch? Chembiochem 2019; 20:2535-2545. [DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201900249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca L. Tarnopol
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
| | - Sierra Bowden
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
| | - Kevin Hinkle
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
| | - Krithika Balakrishnan
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
| | - Akira Nishii
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
| | - Caleb J. Kaczmarek
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
| | - Tara Pawloski
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
| | - Anthony G. Vecchiarelli
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI 48109 USA
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19
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Martin N. Dynamic Synthetic Cells Based on Liquid-Liquid Phase Separation. Chembiochem 2019; 20:2553-2568. [PMID: 31039282 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201900183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Living cells have long been a source of inspiration for chemists. Their capacity of performing complex tasks relies on the spatiotemporal coordination of matter and energy fluxes. Recent years have witnessed growing interest in the bottom-up construction of cell-like models capable of reproducing aspects of such dynamic organisation. Liquid-liquid phase-separation (LLPS) processes in water are increasingly recognised as representing a viable compartmentalisation strategy through which to produce dynamic synthetic cells. Herein, we highlight examples of the dynamic properties of LLPS used to assemble synthetic cells, including their biocatalytic activity, reversible condensation and dissolution, growth and division, and recent directions towards the design of higher-order structures and behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Martin
- Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, Centre de Recherche Paul Pascal, UMR 5031, 115 Avenue du Dr. Albert Schweitzer, 33600, Pessac, France
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20
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Robinson T. Microfluidic Handling and Analysis of Giant Vesicles for Use as Artificial Cells: A Review. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019; 3:e1800318. [PMID: 32648705 DOI: 10.1002/adbi.201800318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
One of the goals of synthetic biology is the bottom-up construction of an artificial cell, the successful realization of which could shed light on how cellular life emerged and could also be a useful tool for studying the function of modern cells. Using liposomes as biomimetic containers is particularly promising because lipid membranes are biocompatible and much of the required machinery can be reconstituted within them. Giant lipid vesicles have been used extensively in other fields such as biophysics and drug discovery, but their use as artificial cells has only recently seen an increase. Despite the prevalence of giant vesicles, many experiments remain challenging or impossible due to their delicate nature compared to biological cells. This review aims to highlight the effectiveness of microfluidic technologies in handling and analyzing giant vesicles. The advantages and disadvantages of different microfluidic approaches and what new insights can be gained from various applications are introduced. Finally, future directions are discussed in which the unique combination of microfluidics and giant lipid vesicles can push forward the bottom-up construction of artificial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Robinson
- Department of Theory & Bio-Systems, Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, Potsdam, 14424, Germany
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21
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Exterkate M, Driessen AJM. Synthetic Minimal Cell: Self-Reproduction of the Boundary Layer. ACS OMEGA 2019; 4:5293-5303. [PMID: 30949617 PMCID: PMC6443216 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.8b02955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
A critical aspect in the bottom-up construction of a synthetic minimal cell is to develop an entity that is capable of self-reproduction. A key role in this process is the expansion and division of the boundary layer that surrounds the compartment, a process in which content loss has to be avoided and the barrier function maintained. Here, we describe the latest developments regarding self-reproduction of a boundary layer with a focus on the growth and division of phospholipid-based membranes in the context of a synthetic minimal cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marten Exterkate
- Department of Molecular Microbiology,
Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747
AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Arnold J. M. Driessen
- Department of Molecular Microbiology,
Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747
AG Groningen, The Netherlands
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22
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Tailoring the appearance: what will synthetic cells look like? Curr Opin Biotechnol 2018; 51:47-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2017.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2017] [Revised: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 11/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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23
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Yu Q, Sun J, Huang S, Chang H, Bai Q, Chen YX, Liang D. Inward Budding and Endocytosis of Membranes Regulated by de Novo Designed Peptides. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2018; 34:6183-6193. [PMID: 29733597 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.8b00882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Protein-mediated endocytosis of membrane is a key event in biological system. The mechanism, however, is still not clear. Using a de novo designed bola-type peptide KKKLLLLLLLLKKK (K3L8K3) as a protein mimic, we studied how it induced giant unilamellar vesicle (GUV) to form inward buds or endocytosis at varying conditions. Results show that the inward budding is initiated as the charged lipids are neutralized by K3L8K3, which results in a negative spontaneous curvature. If the charged lipids have unsaturated tails, the buddings are slim fibrils, which can further wrap into a spherical structure. In the case of saturated charged lipids, the buddings are rigid tubules, stable in the studied time period. The unsaturated lipid to saturated lipid ratio in the mother membrane is another key parameter governing the shape and dynamics of the buds. A complete endocytosis is observed when K3L8K3 is attached with a hydrophobic moiety, suggesting that hydrophobic interaction helps the buds to detach from the mother membrane. The molecules in the surrounding medium, such as negatively charged oligonucleotides, are engulfed into the GUV via endocytosis pathway induced by K3L8K3. Our study provides a novel strategy for illustrating the endocytosis mechanism by using peptides of simple sequence.
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24
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Urakami N, Jimbo T, Sakuma Y, Imai M. Molecular mechanism of vesicle division induced by coupling between lipid geometry and membrane curvatures. SOFT MATTER 2018. [PMID: 29517793 DOI: 10.1039/c7sm02188g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
We investigated the effects of lipid geometry on vesicle division using coarse grained molecular dynamics simulations. When the vesicle is composed of zero and negative spontaneous curvature lipids (ZSLs and NSLs), the difference in their molecular spontaneous curvatures destabilizes the neck of the limiting shape vesicle. In the vesicle division pathway, the neck developed into the stalk intermediates. The stalk was broken when the NSLs were expelled from the stalk. Free energy analysis shows that the coupling between the lipid geometry and the Gaussian rigidity is responsible for the observed vesicle division.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naohito Urakami
- Department of Physics and Informatics, Yamaguchi University, 1677-1 Yoshida, Yamaguchi, 753-8512, Japan.
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25
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26
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Deshpande S, Spoelstra WK, van Doorn M, Kerssemakers J, Dekker C. Mechanical Division of Cell-Sized Liposomes. ACS NANO 2018; 12:2560-2568. [PMID: 29455527 PMCID: PMC5876618 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.7b08411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2017] [Accepted: 02/18/2018] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Liposomes, self-assembled vesicles with a lipid-bilayer boundary similar to cell membranes, are extensively used in both fundamental and applied sciences. Manipulation of their physical properties, such as growth and division, may significantly expand their use as model systems in cellular and synthetic biology. Several approaches have been explored to controllably divide liposomes, such as shape transformation through temperature cycling, incorporation of additional lipids, and the encapsulation of protein division machinery. However, so far, these methods lacked control, exhibited low efficiency, and yielded asymmetric division in terms of volume or lipid composition. Here, we present a microfluidics-based strategy to realize mechanical division of cell-sized (∼6 μm) liposomes. We use octanol-assisted liposome assembly (OLA) to produce liposomes on chip, which are subsequently flowed against the sharp edge of a wedge-shaped splitter. Upon encountering such a Y-shaped bifurcation, the liposomes are deformed and, remarkably, are able to divide into two stable daughter liposomes in just a few milliseconds. The probability of successful division is found to critically depend on the surface area-to-volume ratio of the mother liposome, which can be tuned through osmotic pressure, and to strongly correlate to the mother liposome size for given microchannel dimensions. The division process is highly symmetric (∼3% size variation between the daughter liposomes) and is accompanied by a low leakage. This mechanical division of liposomes may constitute a valuable step to establish a growth-division cycle of synthetic cells.
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27
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Caspi Y, Dekker C. Dividing the Archaeal Way: The Ancient Cdv Cell-Division Machinery. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:174. [PMID: 29551994 PMCID: PMC5840170 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.00174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2017] [Accepted: 01/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell division in most prokaryotes is mediated by the well-studied fts genes, with FtsZ as the principal player. In many archaeal species, however, division is orchestrated differently. The Crenarchaeota phylum of archaea features the action of the three proteins, CdvABC. This Cdv system is a unique and less-well-studied division mechanism that merits closer inspection. In vivo, the three Cdv proteins form a composite band that contracts concomitantly with the septum formation. Of the three Cdv proteins, CdvA is the first to be recruited to the division site, while CdvB and CdvC are thought to participate in the active part of the Cdv division machinery. Interestingly, CdvB shares homology with a family of proteins from the eukaryotic ESCRT-III complex, and CdvC is a homolog of the eukaryotic Vps4 complex. These two eukaryotic complexes are key factors in the endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) pathway, which is responsible for various budding processes in eukaryotic cells and which participates in the final stages of division in Metazoa. There, ESCRT-III forms a contractile machinery that actively cuts the membrane, whereas Vps4, which is an ATPase, is necessary for the turnover of the ESCRT membrane-abscission polymers. In contrast to CdvB and CdvC, CdvA is unique to the archaeal Crenarchaeota and Thaumarchaeota phyla. The Crenarchaeota division mechanism has often been suggested to represent a simplified version of the ESCRT division machinery thus providing a model system to study the evolution and mechanism of cell division in higher organisms. However, there are still many open questions regarding this parallelism and the division mechanism of Crenarchaeota. Here, we review the existing data on the role of the Cdv proteins in the division process of Crenarchaeota as well as concisely review the ESCRT system in eukaryotes. We survey the similarities and differences between the division and abscission mechanisms in the two cases. We suggest that the Cdv system functions differently in archaea than ESCRT does in eukaryotes, and that, unlike the eukaryotic case, the Cdv system's main function may be related to surplus membrane invagination and cell-wall synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaron Caspi
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
| | - Cees Dekker
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
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28
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Exterkate M, Caforio A, Stuart MCA, Driessen AJM. Growing Membranes In Vitro by Continuous Phospholipid Biosynthesis from Free Fatty Acids. ACS Synth Biol 2018; 7:153-165. [PMID: 28922922 PMCID: PMC5778391 DOI: 10.1021/acssynbio.7b00265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
One of the key aspects that defines a cell as a living entity is its ability to self-reproduce. In this process, membrane biogenesis is an essential element. Here, we developed an in vitro phospholipid biosynthesis pathway based on a cascade of eight enzymes, starting from simple fatty acid building blocks and glycerol 3-phosphate. The reconstituted system yields multiple phospholipid species that vary in acyl-chain and polar headgroup compositions. Due to the high fidelity and versatility, complete conversion of the fatty acid substrates into multiple phospholipid species is achieved simultaneously, leading to membrane expansion as a first step toward a synthetic minimal cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marten Exterkate
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, and ‡Department of Electron Microscopy, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute and the Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Antonella Caforio
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, and ‡Department of Electron Microscopy, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute and the Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Marc C. A. Stuart
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, and ‡Department of Electron Microscopy, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute and the Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Arnold J. M. Driessen
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, and ‡Department of Electron Microscopy, Groningen Biomolecular Sciences and Biotechnology Institute and the Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, University of Groningen, Nijenborgh 7, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
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29
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Lambert C, Lerner TR, Bui NK, Somers H, Aizawa SI, Liddell S, Clark A, Vollmer W, Lovering AL, Sockett RE. Interrupting peptidoglycan deacetylation during Bdellovibrio predator-prey interaction prevents ultimate destruction of prey wall, liberating bacterial-ghosts. Sci Rep 2016; 6:26010. [PMID: 27211869 PMCID: PMC4876506 DOI: 10.1038/srep26010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2016] [Accepted: 04/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The peptidoglycan wall, located in the periplasm between the inner and outer membranes of the cell envelope in Gram-negative bacteria, maintains cell shape and endows osmotic robustness. Predatory Bdellovibrio bacteria invade the periplasm of other bacterial prey cells, usually crossing the peptidoglycan layer, forming transient structures called bdelloplasts within which the predators replicate. Prey peptidoglycan remains intact for several hours, but is modified and then degraded by escaping predators. Here we show predation is altered by deleting two Bdellovibrio N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) deacetylases, one of which we show to have a unique two domain structure with a novel regulatory”plug”. Deleting the deacetylases limits peptidoglycan degradation and rounded prey cell “ghosts” persist after mutant-predator exit. Mutant predators can replicate unusually in the periplasmic region between the peptidoglycan wall and the outer membrane rather than between wall and inner-membrane, yet still obtain nutrients from the prey cytoplasm. Deleting two further genes encoding DacB/PBP4 family proteins, known to decrosslink and round prey peptidoglycan, results in a quadruple mutant Bdellovibrio which leaves prey-shaped ghosts upon predation. The resultant bacterial ghosts contain cytoplasmic membrane within bacteria-shaped peptidoglycan surrounded by outer membrane material which could have promise as “bacterial skeletons” for housing artificial chromosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carey Lambert
- Centre for Genetics and Genomics, School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham, NG7 2UH, UK
| | - Thomas R Lerner
- The Francis Crick Institute, Mill Hill Laboratory, The Ridgeway, Mill Hill, London, NW7 1AA, UK
| | - Nhat Khai Bui
- The Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Baddiley Clark Building, Medical School, Newcastle University, Richardson Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4AX, UK
| | - Hannah Somers
- Centre for Genetics and Genomics, School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham, NG7 2UH, UK
| | - Shin-Ichi Aizawa
- Department of Life Sciences, Prefectural University of Hiroshima, Shobara, Hiroshima, 727-0023, Japan
| | - Susan Liddell
- School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Leicestershire, LE12 5RD, UK
| | - Ana Clark
- Centre for Genetics and Genomics, School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham, NG7 2UH, UK
| | - Waldemar Vollmer
- The Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Baddiley Clark Building, Medical School, Newcastle University, Richardson Road, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE2 4AX, UK
| | - Andrew L Lovering
- Institute for Microbiology and Infection, School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - R Elizabeth Sockett
- Centre for Genetics and Genomics, School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Medical School, Queen's Medical Centre, Nottingham, NG7 2UH, UK
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30
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Deshpande S, Caspi Y, Meijering AEC, Dekker C. Octanol-assisted liposome assembly on chip. Nat Commun 2016; 7:10447. [PMID: 26794442 PMCID: PMC4735860 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms10447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 202] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2015] [Accepted: 12/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Liposomes are versatile supramolecular assemblies widely used in basic and applied sciences. Here we present a novel microfluidics-based method, octanol-assisted liposome assembly (OLA), to form monodisperse, cell-sized (5-20 μm), unilamellar liposomes with excellent encapsulation efficiency. Akin to bubble blowing, an inner aqueous phase and a surrounding lipid-carrying 1-octanol phase is pinched off by outer fluid streams. Such hydrodynamic flow focusing results in double-emulsion droplets that spontaneously develop a side-connected 1-octanol pocket. Owing to interfacial energy minimization, the pocket splits off to yield fully assembled solvent-free liposomes within minutes. This solves the long-standing fundamental problem of prolonged presence of residual oil in the liposome bilayer. We demonstrate the unilamellarity of liposomes with functional α-haemolysin protein pores in the membrane and validate the biocompatibility by inner leaflet localization of bacterial divisome proteins (FtsZ and ZipA). OLA offers a versatile platform for future analytical tools, delivery systems, nanoreactors and synthetic cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siddharth Deshpande
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628 CJ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Yaron Caspi
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628 CJ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Anna E C Meijering
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628 CJ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Cees Dekker
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628 CJ Delft, The Netherlands
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31
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Miller DM, Gulbis JM. Engineering protocells: prospects for self-assembly and nanoscale production-lines. Life (Basel) 2015; 5:1019-53. [PMID: 25815781 PMCID: PMC4500129 DOI: 10.3390/life5021019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2015] [Revised: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 03/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The increasing ease of producing nucleic acids and proteins to specification offers potential for design and fabrication of artificial synthetic "organisms" with a myriad of possible capabilities. The prospects for these synthetic organisms are significant, with potential applications in diverse fields including synthesis of pharmaceuticals, sources of renewable fuel and environmental cleanup. Until now, artificial cell technology has been largely restricted to the modification and metabolic engineering of living unicellular organisms. This review discusses emerging possibilities for developing synthetic protocell "machines" assembled entirely from individual biological components. We describe a host of recent technological advances that could potentially be harnessed in design and construction of synthetic protocells, some of which have already been utilized toward these ends. More elaborate designs include options for building self-assembling machines by incorporating cellular transport and assembly machinery. We also discuss production in miniature, using microfluidic production lines. While there are still many unknowns in the design, engineering and optimization of protocells, current technologies are now tantalizingly close to the capabilities required to build the first prototype protocells with potential real-world applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Miller
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville VIC 3052, Australia.
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville VIC 3052, Australia.
| | - Jacqueline M Gulbis
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville VIC 3052, Australia.
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville VIC 3052, Australia.
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Hentrich C, Szostak JW. Controlled growth of filamentous fatty acid vesicles under flow. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2014; 30:14916-14925. [PMID: 25402759 PMCID: PMC4985002 DOI: 10.1021/la503933x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2014] [Revised: 11/14/2014] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The earliest forms of cellular life would have required a membrane compartment capable of growth and division. Fatty acid vesicles are an attractive model of protocell membranes, as they can grow into filamentous vesicles that readily divide while retaining their contents. In order to study vesicle growth, we have developed a method for immobilizing multilamellar fatty acid vesicles on modified glass surfaces and inducing filamentous membrane growth under flow. Filament formation strictly depended on the presence of freshly neutralized fatty acid micelles in the flow chamber. Using light microscopy, we observed a strong dependence of initial growth velocity on initial vesicle size, suggesting that new fatty acid molecules were incorporated into the membrane over the entire external surface of the vesicle. We examined the influences of flow rate, fatty acid concentration, and salt concentration on filamentous growth and observed drastic shape changes, including membrane pearling, of preexisting membrane tubules in response to osmotic stress. These results illustrate the versatility of flow studies for exploring the process of fatty acid vesicle growth following exposure to free fatty acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Hentrich
- Howard
Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Molecular Biology and Center
for Computational and Integrative Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, 185 Cambridge Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
- Department
of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Jack W. Szostak
- Howard
Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Molecular Biology and Center
for Computational and Integrative Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, 185 Cambridge Street, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States
- Department
of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, 77 Avenue Louis Pasteur, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard
University, 12 Oxford
St., Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
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Mercier R, Kawai Y, Errington J. General principles for the formation and proliferation of a wall-free (L-form) state in bacteria. eLife 2014; 3. [PMID: 25358088 PMCID: PMC4244569 DOI: 10.7554/elife.04629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2014] [Accepted: 10/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The peptidoglycan cell wall is a defining structural feature of the bacterial kingdom. Curiously, some bacteria have the ability to switch to a wall-free or ‘L-form’ state. Although known for decades, the general properties of L-forms are poorly understood, largely due to the lack of systematic analysis of L-forms in the molecular biology era. Here we show that inhibition of peptidoglycan precursor synthesis promotes the generation of L-forms from both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. We show that the L-forms generated have in common a mechanism of proliferation involving membrane blebbing and tubulation, which is dependent on an altered rate of membrane synthesis. Crucially, this mode of proliferation is independent of the essential FtsZ based division machinery. Our results suggest that the L-form mode of proliferation is conserved across the bacterial kingdom, reinforcing the idea that it could have been used in primitive cells, and opening up its use in the generation of synthetic cells. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.04629.001 Bacterial cells are surrounded by a cell wall made of a molecule called peptidoglycan. This wall is important for many aspects of cell survival including the maintenance of cell shape and protection from mechanical damage. However, many bacteria are able to switch to a state in which they don't have a cell wall. Although this wall-free state was discovered several decades ago, little is known about its general properties because there isn't a quick and reliable method for making such bacteria. Recently, it has been shown that bacteria of the species Bacillus subtilis can rapidly switch to the wall-free state when the production of peptidoglycan is reduced. Here, Mercier et al. show that the same method also works for a wide range of bacterial species. The wall-free states of the various species share the same unusual way of dividing to produce daughter cells. Normally, bacterial cell division is a highly controlled process involving a protein called FtsZ that accumulates at the site of cell division. In bacteria without walls, on the other hand, cell division does not require FtsZ, but instead depends on the rate of production of new cell membrane. Excessive production of membrane leads to the cell changing shape, resulting in spontaneous separation into daughter cells. The results suggest that this form of cell division is conserved across all bacteria. It is possible that this is an ancient mechanism that may have been used by the ancestors of modern bacteria, before the evolution of the cell wall. In future, this simple form of cell division could prove useful the development of synthetic living cells. DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.04629.002
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Affiliation(s)
- Romain Mercier
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Yoshikazu Kawai
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Jeff Errington
- Centre for Bacterial Cell Biology, Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
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Nourian Z, Scott A, Danelon C. Toward the assembly of a minimal divisome. SYSTEMS AND SYNTHETIC BIOLOGY 2014; 8:237-47. [PMID: 25136386 PMCID: PMC4127181 DOI: 10.1007/s11693-014-9150-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2014] [Revised: 04/15/2014] [Accepted: 04/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The construction of an irreducible minimal cell having all essential attributes of a living system is one of the biggest challenges facing synthetic biology. One ubiquitous task accomplished by any living systems is the division of the cell envelope. Hence, the assembly of an elementary, albeit sufficient, molecular machinery that supports compartment division, is a crucial step towards the realization of self-reproducing artificial cells. Looking backward to the molecular nature of possible ancestral, supposedly more rudimentary, cell division systems may help to identify a minimal divisome. In light of a possible evolutionary pathway of division mechanisms from simple lipid vesicles toward modern life, we define two approaches for recapitulating division in primitive cells: the membrane deforming protein route and the lipid biosynthesis route. Having identified possible proteins and working mechanisms participating in membrane shape alteration, we then discuss how they could be integrated into the construction framework of a programmable minimal cell relying on gene expression inside liposomes. The protein synthesis using recombinant elements (PURE) system, a reconstituted minimal gene expression system, is conceivably the most versatile synthesis platform. As a first step towards the de novo synthesis of a divisome, we showed that the N-BAR domain protein produced from its gene could assemble onto the outer surface of liposomes and sculpt the membrane into tubular structures. We finally discuss the remaining challenges for building up a self-reproducing minimal cell, in particular the coupling of the division machinery with volume expansion and genome replication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zohreh Nourian
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628 CJ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Andrew Scott
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628 CJ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Christophe Danelon
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology, Lorentzweg 1, 2628 CJ Delft, The Netherlands
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