In Vitro Anti-inflammatory and Antioxidant Activities of 3,5,4′-Trihydroxy-6,7-Methylenedioxyflavone-O-Glycosides and Their Aglycone from Leaves of Polygonum tinctorium Lour

Polygonum tinctorium extract suppresses the virulence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus by disrupting its extracellular vesicles

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) is a significant global health concern, causing both hospital- and community-acquired infections. The extracellular vesicles released by S. aureus (SaEVs) contain essential factors related to the bacterial survival and pathogenicity. Polygonum tinctorium is traditionally used as a natural dye (indigo) and for treating various infectious diseases caused by microorganisms. However, the effect of P. tinctorium extract (Indigo Ex) and its mechanism on SaEVs is unknown.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We investigated the effect and mechanism of Indigo Ex on SaEVs, which could be used in controlling S. aureus, especially MRSA infection.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Indigo Ex was prepared from pesticide-free P. tinctorium, which was dried, powdered, and extracted with d-limonene. SaEVs were isolated and purified from MRSA culture supernatant by step-gradient ultracentrifugation. The effect of Indigo Ex on SaEVs morphology was observed by both transmission and scanning electron microscopy after incubating the Indigo Ex and SaEVs under shaking conditions. The cytotoxicity of Indigo Ex was performed using mouse macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7. In addition, the ability of Indigo Ex-treated SaEVs to stimulate the immune response and cytotoxicity in RAW 264.7 cells were evaluated by ELISA and WST-1 assay, respectively.

RESULTS

SaEV particles were disrupted when treated with undiluted Indigo Ex in a time-dependent manner. For the cytotoxicity of Indigo Ex on RAW 264.7 cells, over 50% of the cell viability decreased when diluted Indigo Ex 1000-fold and no cytotoxic effect was observed at a 25,000-fold dilution of Indigo Ex. Interestingly, the Indigo Ex-treated SaEVs showed less cytotoxic effect than SaEVs alone. Similarly, SaEVs treated with Indigo Ex reduced stimulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-6) and anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10) in RAW 264.7 cells compared to untreated SaEVs. Our results indicate that Indigo Ex disrupted SaEV particles, resulting in reduced virulence and stimulation of immune response.

CONCLUSIONS

This study reveals that the low concentration of Indigo Ex can suppresses the virulence of SaEVs without causing cytotoxicity to the host cells. Therefore, Indigo Ex may have the potential to be used to control S. aureus infection.

Evidence for the efficacy of anti-inflammatory plants used in Brazilian traditional medicine with ethnopharmacological relevance

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

When exacerbated, inflammatory processes can culminate in physical and emotional disorders and, if not stopped, can be lethal. The high prevalence of inflammation has become a public health problem, and the need for new drugs to treat this pathology is imminent. The use of medicinal plants has emerged as an alternative, and a survey of data that corroborates its application in inflammatory diseases is the starting point. Furthermore, Brazil harbors a megadiversity, and the traditional use of plants is relevant and needs to be preserved and carefully explored for the discovery of new medicines.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This review sought to survey the medicinal plants traditionally used in Brazil for the treatment of inflammatory processes and to perform, in an integrative way, a data survey of these species and analysis of their phytochemical, pharmacological, and molecular approaches.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Brazilian plants that are traditionally used for inflammation (ophthalmia, throat inflammation, orchitis, urinary tract inflammation, ear inflammation, and inflammation in general) are listed in the DATAPLAMT database. This database contains information on approximately 3400 native plants used by Brazilians, which were registered in specific documents produced until 1950. These inflammatory disorders were searched in scientific databases (PubMed/Medline, Scopus, Web of Science, Lilacs, Scielo, Virtual Health Library), with standardization of DECS/MESH descriptors for inflammation in English, Spanish, French, and Portuguese, without chronological limitations. For the inclusion criteria, all articles had to be of the evaluated plant species, without association of synthesized substances, and full articles free available in any of the four languages searched. Duplicated articles and those that were not freely available were excluded.

RESULTS

A total of 126 species were identified, culminating in 6181 articles in the search. After evaluation of the inclusion criteria, 172 articles representing 40 different species and 38 families were included in the study. Comparison of reproducibility in intra-species results became difficult because of the large number of extraction solvents tested and the wide diversity of evaluation models used. Although the number of in vitro and in vivo evaluations was high, only one clinical study was found (Abrus precatorius). In the phytochemical analyses, more than 225 compounds, mostly phenolic compounds, were identified.

CONCLUSION

This review allowed the grouping of preclinical and clinical studies of several Brazilian species traditionally used for the treatment of many types of inflammation, corroborating new searches for their pharmacological properties as a way to aid public health. Furthermore, the large number of plants that have not yet been studied has encouraged new research to revive traditional knowledge.

Topical application of indigo-plant leaves extract enhances healing of skin lesion in an excision wound model in rats

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to evaluate the pharmacological role of indigo extract in accelerating the wound healing in a rat model.

METHODS

Female Sprague-Dawley rats were anesthetized with ketamine (30 mg/kg, i.p.) and the full thickness of the marked skin was then cut carefully and wounds were left undressed. Indigo extract (5%) in PBS was applied topically twice daily until healing was complete. A control group of rats was treated with povidone-iodide (Betadine®). Rats treated with phosphate buffer saline were used as a negative control group. The rate of wound healing was assessed daily. Histopathological examination of skin sections were qualitatively assessed by independent evaluators. The inflammatory and apoptotic markers were assessed in skin tissue homogenates using ELISA.

RESULTS

Histopathology data showed that applying indigo to skin wounds enhanced the healing process, resulting in a significant decrease in dermal inflammation in comparison to untreated rats. Topical application of indigo significantly increased antioxidant enzyme activities with reduced malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in wound tissues. The levels of matrix metalloproteases-2 and -9 were significantly lower with an accompanied increase in the level of TGF-β1 in skin tissues from rats treated with indigo compared to the control group treated with PBS.

CONCLUSIONS

The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of indigo leaf extract accelerate the healing of skin injuries.

An Update on Phytochemicals and Pharmacological Activities of the Genus Persicaria and Polygonum

The discovery of new pharmaceutical identities, particularly anti-infective agents, represents an urgent need due to the increase in immunocompromised patients and the ineffectiveness/toxicity of the drugs currently used. The scientific community has recognized in the last decades the importance of the plant kingdom as a huge source of novel molecules which could act against different type of infections or illness. However, the great diversity of plant species makes it difficult to select them with probabilities of success, adding to the fact that existing information is difficult to find, it is atomized or disordered. Persicaria and Polygonum constitute two of the main representatives of the Polygonaceae family, which have been extensively used in traditional medicine worldwide. Important and structurally diverse bioactive compounds have been isolated from these genera of wild plants; among them, sesquiterpenes and flavonoids should be remarked. In this article, we firstly mention all the species reported with pharmacological use and their geographical distribution. Moreover, a number of tables which summarize an update detailing the type of natural product (extract or isolated compound), applied doses, displayed bioassays and the results obtained for the main bioactivities of these genera cited in the literature during the past 40 years. Antimicrobial, antioxidant, analgesic and anti-inflammatory, antinociceptive, anticancer, antiviral, antiparasitic, anti-diabetic, antipyretic, hepatoprotective, diuretic, gastroprotective and neuropharmacological activities were explored and reviewed in this work, concluding that both genera could be the source for upcoming molecules to treat different human diseases.

Anti-inflammatory and bioavailability studies on dietary 3,5,4'-trihydroxy-6,7-methylenedioxyflavone-O-glycosides and their aglycone from indigo leaves in a murine model of inflammatory bowel disease

Persicaria tinctoria (Aiton) Spach, also called Polygonum tinctorium Lour., (family Polygonaceae) for indigo plant has been traditionally useful as a medicinal or edible plant with a variety of biological activities. Of these, much attention has been paid to their anti-inflammatory activities. We have recently demonstrated that indigo leaves contain high levels of flavonol O-glycosides with 3,5,4'-trihydroxy-6,7-methylenedioxyflavone (TMF) as an aglycone. In this study, we attempted to evaluate anti-inflammatory activities of TMF-O-glycosides and free TMF prepared from indigo leaves after extraction with hot water. Free TMF was found to appreciably down-regulate the gene expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines including interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, inducible nitric oxide, and tumor necrosis factor-α in cultured macrophage cells stimulated with lipopolysaccharide while up-regulating the expression of anti-inflammatory IL-10. However, no study has been conducted regarding in vivo anti-inflammatory activities of TMF-O-glycosides and free TMF until now. Here, we assessed in vivo anti-inflammatory effects of these dietary compounds on ulcerative colitis in a murine model of inflammatory bowel disease by the induction with dextran sulfate sodium (DSS). Histological evaluation revealed that both TMF-O-glycosides and free TMF effectively protected against DSS-induced ulcerative colitis. The analysis of digested products by liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry led us to detect free TMF as a predominant metabolite in the feces of mice fed with TMF-O-glycosides. Moreover, free TMF was later detected as glucuronyl conjugates of TMF in the liver of mice fed with both fractions. These results indicate the effective digestion of TMF-O-glycosides and the subsequent absorption of free TMF in the gut of mice for exerting anti-inflammatory effects. Taken together, our findings suggest that dietary TMF-O-glycosides could be promising natural sources for the utilization as herbal medicine and nutraceuticals to expect in vivo anti-inflammatory activities.

Constituents of flavonol O-glycosides and antioxidant activities of extracts from seeds, sprouts, and aerial parts of Polygonum tinctorium Lour

Polygonum tinctorium Lour. (family Polygonaceae), known as indigo plant, has been useful as a medicinal or edible plant abundant in polyphenolic compounds. We have recently shown that flavonol O-glycosides with 3,5,4′-trihydroxy-6,7-methylenedioxyflavone (TMF) are predominant flavonoids in indigo leaves. However, no study has been performed regarding changes in the levels of flavonoid species during the germination and growth of indigo plant. Here, we attempted to determine the individual constituents of flavonol O-glycosides and the changes in their contents of the seeds, sprouts, and aerial parts. These results revealed that only the seeds predominantly contained flavonol O-(acetyl)-rhamnosides with quercetin or kaempferol as an aglycone. During the development of the sprouts and aerial parts, flavonol O-glycosides with TMF as an aglycone became mainly detectable and accounted for 79.4% and 74.9% of total flavonol O-glycosides from the extracts of aerial parts harvested in 2016 and 2017, respectively. Of the plant organs tested, the aerial parts exhibited the highest antioxidant activities concomitant with greatly increased levels of total polyphenols. Thus, we were able to conduct the identification and quantification of flavonol O-glycosides from the seeds, sprouts, and aerial parts of indigo plant and to evaluate antioxidant activities of their extracts. Taken together, our findings clearly provide the evidence that the aerial parts of indigo plant are a rich source of flavonol O-glycosides with TMF and exhibit much higher antioxidant activities, indicating the usefulness for the application to food and nutraceutical purposes.