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Ramos P, Pinto E, Santos A, Almeida A. Reference values for trace element levels in the human brain: A systematic review of the literature. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2021; 66:126745. [PMID: 33813265 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2021.126745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Revised: 06/14/2020] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Some trace elements (TE) are eminently toxic for humans (e.g., Al, Pb, Hg, Cd) and its presence in the central nervous system has been linked to the etiology of neurodegenerative diseases (ND). More recently, the focus has shifted to the potential role of the imbalances on essential TE levels (e.g., Fe, Cu, Zn, Se) within the brain tissue, and they have also been identified as potentially responsible for the cognitive decline associated with normal ageing and the development of some ND, although their definite role remains unclear. Accurately, well-defined reference values for TE levels in human body fluids and tissues are indispensable to identify possible disturbances in individual cases. Moreover, since the brain is a highly heterogeneous organ, with anatomically and physiologically very different areas, a detailed mapping of TE distribution across the brain tissue of normal individuals, with an in-depth analysis of TE levels in the different brain regions, is a mandatory prior work so that the results obtained from patients suffering from ND and other brain diseases can be interpreted. This review aims to compile and summarize the available data regarding TE levels in the different human brain regions of "normal" (non-diseased) individuals in order to contribute to the establishment of robust reference values. Fifty-four studies, published since 1960, were considered. The results showed a great variability between different studies. The potential sources of this variability are discussed. The need for increased harmonization of experimental strategies is highlighted in order to improve the comparability of the data obtained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrícia Ramos
- LAQV / REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal
| | - Edgar Pinto
- LAQV / REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal; Department of Environmental Health, School of Health, P.Porto, CISA/Research Center in Environment and Health, 4200-072, Porto, Portugal
| | - Agostinho Santos
- National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences, North Branch, Jardim Carrilho Videira, 4050-167, Porto, Portugal; Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Al. Prof. Hernâni Monteiro, 4200-319, Porto, Portugal
| | - Agostinho Almeida
- LAQV / REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313, Porto, Portugal.
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Ramos P, Santos A, Pinto E, Pinto NR, Mendes R, Magalhães T, Almeida A. Alkali metals levels in the human brain tissue: Anatomical region differences and age-related changes. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2016; 38:174-182. [PMID: 27150910 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2016.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2016] [Accepted: 03/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The link between trace elements imbalances (both "toxic" and "essential") in the human brain and neurodegenerative disease has been subject of extensive research. More recently, some studies have highlighted the potential role of the homeostasis deregulation of alkali metals in specific brain regions as key factor in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases such as multiple sclerosis and Alzheimer's disease. Using flame atomic emission spectrometry and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry after microwave-assisted acid digestion of the samples, alkali metals (Na, K, Li, Rb and Cs) were determined in 14 different areas of the human brain (frontal cortex, superior and middle temporal gyri, caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus, cingulated gyrus, hippocampus, inferior parietal lobule, visual cortex of the occipital lobe, midbrain, pons, medulla and cerebellum) of adult individuals (n=42; 71±12, range: 50-101 years old) with no known history and evidence of neurodegenerative, neurological or psychiatric disorder. Potassium was found as the most abundant alkali metal, followed by Na, Rb, Cs and Li. Lithium, K and Cs distribution showed to be quite heterogeneous. On the contrary, Rb and Na appeared quite homogeneously distributed within the human brain tissue. The lowest levels of Na, K, Rb and Li were found in the brainstem (midbrain, medulla and pons) and cerebellum, while the lowest levels of Cs were found in the frontal cortex. The highest levels of K (mean±sd; range 15.5±2.5; 8.9-21.8mg/g) Rb (17.2±6.1; 3.9-32.4μg/g and Cs (83.4±48.6; 17.3-220.5ng/g) were found in putamen. The highest levels of Na and Li were found in the frontal cortex (11.6±2.4; 6.6-17.1mg/g) and caudate nucleus (7.6±4.6 2.2-21.3ng/g), respectively. Although K, Cs and Li levels appear to remain largely unchanged with age, some age-related changes were observed for Na and Rb levels in particular brain regions (namely in the hippocampus).
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrícia Ramos
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Porto University, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal
| | - Agostinho Santos
- National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences - North Branch, Jardim Carrilho Videira, 4050-167 Porto, Portugal; CENCIFOR - Forensic Science Center, Largo da Sé Nova, s/n, 3000-213 Coimbra, Portugal; Faculty of Medicine, Porto University, Al. Prof. Hernâni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal; School of Health Sciences, Minho University, Campus of Gualtar, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Edgar Pinto
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Porto University, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; CISA, Research Centre on Environment and Health, School of Allied Health Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, Rua Valente Perfeito 322, 4400-330 Vila Nova de Gaia, Portugal
| | - Nair Rosas Pinto
- CENCIFOR - Forensic Science Center, Largo da Sé Nova, s/n, 3000-213 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ricardo Mendes
- CENCIFOR - Forensic Science Center, Largo da Sé Nova, s/n, 3000-213 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Teresa Magalhães
- CENCIFOR - Forensic Science Center, Largo da Sé Nova, s/n, 3000-213 Coimbra, Portugal; Faculty of Medicine, Porto University, Al. Prof. Hernâni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal; Institute of Research and Advanced Training in Health Sciences and Technologies (IINFACTS), Department of Sciences, University Institute of Health Sciences (IUCS), CESPU, R. Central da Gandra 1317, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal
| | - Agostinho Almeida
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Porto University, Rua de Jorge Viterbo Ferreira 228, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
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Stüber C, Pitt D, Wang Y. Iron in Multiple Sclerosis and Its Noninvasive Imaging with Quantitative Susceptibility Mapping. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:ijms17010100. [PMID: 26784172 PMCID: PMC4730342 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17010100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2015] [Revised: 01/05/2016] [Accepted: 01/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Iron is considered to play a key role in the development and progression of Multiple Sclerosis (MS). In particular, iron that accumulates in myeloid cells after the blood-brain barrier (BBB) seals may contribute to chronic inflammation, oxidative stress and eventually neurodegeneration. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a well-established tool for the non-invasive study of MS. In recent years, an advanced MRI method, quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM), has made it possible to study brain iron through in vivo imaging. Moreover, immunohistochemical investigations have helped defining the lesional and cellular distribution of iron in MS brain tissue. Imaging studies in MS patients and of brain tissue combined with histological studies have provided important insights into the role of iron in inflammation and neurodegeneration in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Stüber
- Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10044, USA.
- Department of Neurology, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, USA.
| | - David Pitt
- Department of Neurology, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, USA.
| | - Yi Wang
- Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10044, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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Stüber C, Pitt D, Wang Y. Iron in Multiple Sclerosis and Its Noninvasive Imaging with Quantitative Susceptibility Mapping. Int J Mol Sci 2016. [PMID: 26784172 DOI: 10.3390/ijmsl17010100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Iron is considered to play a key role in the development and progression of Multiple Sclerosis (MS). In particular, iron that accumulates in myeloid cells after the blood-brain barrier (BBB) seals may contribute to chronic inflammation, oxidative stress and eventually neurodegeneration. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a well-established tool for the non-invasive study of MS. In recent years, an advanced MRI method, quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM), has made it possible to study brain iron through in vivo imaging. Moreover, immunohistochemical investigations have helped defining the lesional and cellular distribution of iron in MS brain tissue. Imaging studies in MS patients and of brain tissue combined with histological studies have provided important insights into the role of iron in inflammation and neurodegeneration in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Stüber
- Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10044, USA.
- Department of Neurology, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, USA.
| | - David Pitt
- Department of Neurology, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, USA.
| | - Yi Wang
- Department of Radiology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10044, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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Chen DQ, Strauss I, Hayes DJ, Davis KD, Hodaie M. Age-related changes in diffusion tensor imaging metrics of fornix subregions in healthy humans. Stereotact Funct Neurosurg 2015; 93:151-9. [PMID: 25790958 DOI: 10.1159/000368442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2014] [Accepted: 09/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE White matter diffusivity measures of the fornix change with aging, which likely relates to changes in memory and cognition in older adults. Subregional variations in forniceal diffusivity may exist, given its heterogeneous anatomy and connectivity; however, these have not been closely examined in vivo. We examined diffusivity parameters (fractional anisotropy, FA; radial diffusivity, RD; axial diffusivity, AD) in forniceal subregions of healthy subjects and correlated them with age and hippocampal volume. METHODS Diffusion-weighted imaging and streamline tractography of the fornix were performed on 20 healthy, right-handed females (23-66 years). Six anatomical subregions were defined: midline (body, column, precommissural fornix) or lateral (fimbria, crura, postcommissural fornix). Regression analysis was performed comparing diffusivities against age. Hippocampal and ventricular volumes were also compared. RESULTS Diffusivity values revealed statistical changes with age in both midline and lateralized subregions. The fornix body and left crus showed age-related alterations in all metrics (FA, RD, AD), whereas only right crus FA was altered. There was no significant change in hippocampal volumes, suggesting that forniceal changes may precede hippocampal age-related changes. CONCLUSIONS Age-related changes in fornix diffusivity measures appear subregion dependent and asymmetrical. Specific subregion diffusivity measures may be a more sensitive aging marker than hippocampal volume change.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Qixiang Chen
- Institute of Medical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont., Canada
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Tohno Y, Tohno S, Azuma C, Ongkana N, Mahakkanukrauh P, Minami T, Suwannahoy P, Viwatpinyo K, Ke L. Age-related differences and relationships between elements in human amygdala and other limbic system or basal ganglia. Biol Trace Elem Res 2013; 152:161-73. [PMID: 23354542 DOI: 10.1007/s12011-013-9607-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2012] [Accepted: 01/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
To elucidate the compositional changes of the amygdala with aging, the authors investigated age-related differences of elements in human amygdalae. In addition, the relationships between the amygdala and other brain regions were investigated from a viewpoint of elements. After ordinary dissections at Nara Medical University were finished, the amygdalae were removed from the cerebra of the subjects who consisted of 22 men and 23 women, ranging in age from 70 to 101 years. In addition, the hippocampus, dentate gyrus, mammillary body of the limbic system and the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus of the basal ganglia were also removed from the identical cerebra. After the brain samples were incinerated with nitric acid and perchloric acid, the element contents were determined by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry. It was found that both the Ca and Mg contents increased significantly in the amygdalae with aging, but the other five element contents (P, S, Zn, Fe, and Na) did not change significantly in the amygdalae with aging. Regarding the relationships among elements, very significant or significant direct correlations were found among the Ca, P, and Mg contents in the amygdalae. To explore the relationships between the amygdala and either other limbic system or basal ganglia, the correlations between seven elements of the amygdala and hippocampus, dentate gyrus, or mammillary body, and between those of the amygdala and caudate nucleus, putamen, or globus pallidus which derived from the identical cerebra, were analyzed with Pearson's correlation. It was found that regarding the four elements of Ca, P, Mg, and Fe, a close relationship existed between the amygdala and hippocampus, globus pallidus, or mammillary body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiyuki Tohno
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand.
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Tohno Y, Tohno S, Azuma C, Minami T, Ke L, Ongkana N, Sinthubua A, Mahakkanukrauh P. Mineral composition of and the relationships between them of human basal ganglia in very old age. Biol Trace Elem Res 2013; 151:18-29. [PMID: 23111949 DOI: 10.1007/s12011-012-9535-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2012] [Accepted: 10/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Trace elements and the relationships among them were investigated by direct chemical analysis in three basal ganglia regions in very old age individuals and age- and gender-related differences were assessed. After ordinary dissections at Nara Medical University were finished, the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus belonging to the basal ganglia were removed from the identical cerebra of the subjects who consisted of 22 men and 23 women, ranging in age from 70 to 101 years (average age = 83.3 ± 7.5 years). After incineration with nitric acid and perchloric acid, the element contents were determined by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry. It was found that the Ca, P, and Mg contents increased significantly in the putamen with aging and the Mg content increased significantly in the globus pallidus with aging, but no elements increased significantly in the caudate nucleus with aging. Regarding the relationships among elements in the basal ganglia, extremely significant direct correlations were found among the Ca, P, and Mg contents in the putamen. These results suggested that slight calcification occurred in the putamen in very old age. With regard to seven elements of Ca, P, S, Mg, Zn, Fe, and Na, it was examined whether there were significant correlations among the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus pallidus. It was found that there were extremely significant direct correlations among all of the three basal ganglia in the P content. Likewise, with regard to the Fe content, there were extremely or very significant direct correlations among all of the three basal ganglia. Regarding the gender difference in elements, it was found that the Ca content of the caudate nucleus was significantly higher in women than in men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiyuki Tohno
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.
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