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Khan J, Kim ND, Bromhead C, Truman P, Kruger MC, Mallard BL. Hepatotoxicity of titanium dioxide nanoparticles. J Appl Toxicol 2024. [PMID: 38740968 DOI: 10.1002/jat.4626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Revised: 04/21/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
The food additive E171 (titanium dioxide, TiO2), is widely used in foods, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. It is a fine white powder, with at least one third of its particles sized in the nanoparticulate (˂100 nm range, TiO2 NPs). The use of E171 is controversial as its relevant risk assessment has never been satisfactorily accomplished. In vitro and in vivo studies have shown dose-dependent toxicity in various organs including the liver. TiO2 NPs have been shown to induce inflammation, cell death and structural and functional changes within the liver. The toxicity of TiO2 NPs in experimental models varies between organs and according to their physiochemical characteristics and parameters such as dosage and route of administration. Among these factors, ingestion is the most significant exposure route, and the liver is a key target organ. The aim of this review is to highlight the reported adverse effects of orally administered TiO2 NPs on the liver and to discuss the controversial state of its toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jangrez Khan
- School of Health Sciences, Massey University, PO Box 756, Wellington, 6021, New Zealand
| | - Nicholas D Kim
- School of Health Sciences, Massey University, PO Box 756, Wellington, 6021, New Zealand
| | - Collette Bromhead
- School of Health Sciences, Massey University, PO Box 756, Wellington, 6021, New Zealand
| | - Penelope Truman
- School of Health Sciences, Massey University, PO Box 756, Wellington, 6021, New Zealand
| | - Marlena C Kruger
- School of Health Sciences, Massey University, PO Box 756, Wellington, 6021, New Zealand
| | - Beth L Mallard
- School of Health Sciences, Massey University, PO Box 756, Wellington, 6021, New Zealand
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Larrea A, Elexpe A, Díez-Martín E, Torrecilla M, Astigarraga E, Barreda-Gómez G. Neuroinflammation in the Evolution of Motor Function in Stroke and Trauma Patients: Treatment and Potential Biomarkers. Curr Issues Mol Biol 2023; 45:8552-8585. [PMID: 37998716 PMCID: PMC10670324 DOI: 10.3390/cimb45110539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation has a significant impact on different pathologies, such as stroke or spinal cord injury, intervening in their pathophysiology: expansion, progression, and resolution. Neuroinflammation involves oxidative stress, damage, and cell death, playing an important role in neuroplasticity and motor dysfunction by affecting the neuronal connection responsible for motor control. The diagnosis of this pathology is performed using neuroimaging techniques and molecular diagnostics based on identifying and measuring signaling molecules or specific markers. In parallel, new therapeutic targets are being investigated via the use of bionanomaterials and electrostimulation to modulate the neuroinflammatory response. These novel diagnostic and therapeutic strategies have the potential to facilitate the development of anticipatory patterns and deliver the most beneficial treatment to improve patients' quality of life and directly impact their motor skills. However, important challenges remain to be solved. Hence, the goal of this study was to review the implication of neuroinflammation in the evolution of motor function in stroke and trauma patients, with a particular focus on novel methods and potential biomarkers to aid clinicians in diagnosis, treatment, and therapy. A specific analysis of the strengths, weaknesses, threats, and opportunities was conducted, highlighting the key challenges to be faced in the coming years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ane Larrea
- Research and Development Division, IMG Pharma Biotech, 48170 Zamudio, Spain; (A.L.); (A.E.); (E.D.-M.); (E.A.)
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 48940 Leioa, Spain;
| | - Ane Elexpe
- Research and Development Division, IMG Pharma Biotech, 48170 Zamudio, Spain; (A.L.); (A.E.); (E.D.-M.); (E.A.)
| | - Eguzkiñe Díez-Martín
- Research and Development Division, IMG Pharma Biotech, 48170 Zamudio, Spain; (A.L.); (A.E.); (E.D.-M.); (E.A.)
- Department of Immunology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - María Torrecilla
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine and Nursing, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 48940 Leioa, Spain;
| | - Egoitz Astigarraga
- Research and Development Division, IMG Pharma Biotech, 48170 Zamudio, Spain; (A.L.); (A.E.); (E.D.-M.); (E.A.)
| | - Gabriel Barreda-Gómez
- Research and Development Division, IMG Pharma Biotech, 48170 Zamudio, Spain; (A.L.); (A.E.); (E.D.-M.); (E.A.)
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Kaur K, Narang RK, Singh S. Glabridin mitigates TiO 2NP induced cognitive deficit in adult zebrafish. Neurochem Int 2023; 169:105585. [PMID: 37499946 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2023.105585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2023] [Revised: 07/08/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Glabridin is extracted from the roots of Glycyrrhiza glabra, which has anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory properties. We investigated the neuroprotective potential of Glabridin against the learning and memory deficit by triggering NRF2/HO-1 signaling in Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2NP) treated zebrafish. Our study suggests that Glabridin at doses of 12.5, 25, and 50 mg/kg/day for 7 days improved memory and lowered anxiety in the novel object recognition test, T-maze, and novel diving tank respectively. Biochemical analysis showed that Glabridin treatment in TiO2NP-exposed zebrafish enhanced GSH, CAT, SOD, and GPx activity and reduced MDA levels; inhibited proinflammatory mediators, namely, TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. In histopathological evaluation, Glabridin significantly reduced pycnotic neurons in TiO2NP-treated zebrafish brains. Furthermore, Glabridin upregulated NRF2 and HO-1 levels, which leads to a decline in oxidative stress and neuroinflammation and were reversed by ML385 treatment. ML385 as a probe molecule that specifically inhibit NRF2 and prevents its downstream gene expression. Thus, these considerable outcomes provide new insights into the neuroprotective effect of glabridin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karamjeet Kaur
- Department of Pharmacology, ISF College of Pharmacy (An Autonomous College), Moga, Punjab, 142001, India; Affiliated to IKG- Punjab Technical University, Jalandhar, Punjab, 144603, India
| | - R K Narang
- Nanomedicine Research Centre, Department of Pharmaceutics, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga, Punjab, 142001, India
| | - Shamsher Singh
- Neuropharmacology Division, Department of Pharmacology, ISF College of Pharmacy, Moga, Punjab, 142001, India.
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Assadian E, Jamali Z, Salimi A, Pourahmad J. Antioxidants and mitochondrial/lysosomal protective agents reverse toxicity induced by titanium dioxide nanoparticles on human lymphocytes. Toxicol Ind Health 2023; 39:594-602. [PMID: 37593903 DOI: 10.1177/07482337231196293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/19/2023]
Abstract
Most of the literature has focused on titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles (NPs) toxicity, showing the importance of oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and cell death in TiO2-induced toxicity. For this purpose, in the current study, we investigated the protective role of antioxidant and mitochondrial/lysosomal protective agents to minimize TiO2 NPs-induced toxicity in human lymphocytes. Human lymphocytes were obtained from heathy individuals and treated with different concentrations (80, 160, and 320 µg/mL) of TiO2 NPs, and then human lymphocytes preincubated with butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), cyclosporin A (CsA), and chloroquine separately were exposed to TiO2 NPs for 6 h. In all the above-mentioned treated groups, adverse parameters such as cytotoxicity, reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), lysosomal membrane destabilization, the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), and glutathione (GSH) were measured. The results showed that TiO2 nanoparticles induced cytotoxicity through ROS formation, MMP collapse, lysosomal damages, depletion of GSH, and lipid peroxidation. However, BHT as an antioxidant, CsA as a mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) pore sealing agent, and chloroquine as a lysosomotropic agent, significantly inhibited all the TiO2 NPs-induced cellular and organelle toxicities. Thus, it seems that antioxidant and mitochondrial/lysosomal protective agents are promising preventive strategies against TiO2 NPs-induced toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evelyn Assadian
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Zhaleh Jamali
- Department of Addiction Studies, School of Medicine, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran
- Student Research Committee, School of Medicine, Shahroud University of Medical Sciences, Shahroud, Iran
| | - Ahmad Salimi
- Traditional Medicine and Hydrotherapy Research Center, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Ardabil University of Medical Sciences, Ardabil, Iran
| | - Jalal Pourahmad
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Ekhlasian A, Eftekhar E, Daei S, Abbasalipourkabir R, Nourian A, Ziamajidi N. The antioxidant and anti-apoptotic properties of vitamins A, C and E in heart tissue of rats exposed to zinc oxide nanoparticles. Mol Biol Rep 2023; 50:2357-2365. [PMID: 36580195 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-022-08103-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The rapidly increasing applications of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) in various industries have led to growing concerns about their damaging influence on human health. The present research was designed to determine the protective action of vitamins (Vits) A, C and E on the heart toxicity induced by ZnO NPs. METHODS Fifty-four male Wistar rats were allocated into 9 groups of 6 and then exposed to ZnO NPs (200 mg/kg), water (Control1), olive oil (Control2), Vit A (1000 IU/kg), Vit C (200 mg/kg), Vit E (100 IU/kg) and three groups were co-treated with ZnO and one of the Vits A, C or E. The oxidative stress situation was evaluated by measuring oxidative stress markers and the tissue antioxidant enzyme activity. Besides, the mRNA expression of Bcl-2 and Bax and caspase 3,7 activity were assessed. A histopathological examination was also performed to determine the rate of cardiac injury. RESULTS The results indicated that co-administration of ZnO NPs and the aforementioned Vits significantly reduced the total oxidant status and lipid peroxidation relative to the ZnO group (P < 0.05). Furthermore, the supplementation of vitamins, notably Vit E, decreased the ZnO NPs-induced oxidative damage by enhancing the activity of antioxidant enzymes compared to the ZnO NPs-fed rats (P < 0.05). Data also showed the mitigating effects of Vits against ZnO NPs-mediated apoptosis by suppressing the ratio of Bax/Bcl-2 expression and caspase 3,7 activity. CONCLUSION This study highlights the protective role of Vits A, C and E against ZnO NPs cardiotoxicity, though at different levels of effectiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alireza Ekhlasian
- Molecular Medicine Research Center, Hormozgan Health Institute, Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences, Bandar Abbas, Iran
| | - Ebrahim Eftekhar
- Endocrinology and Metabolism Research Center, Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences, Bandar Abbas, Iran
| | - Sajedeh Daei
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Roghayeh Abbasalipourkabir
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran
| | - Alireza Nourian
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, Iran
| | - Nasrin Ziamajidi
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Hamadan University of Medical Sciences, Hamadan, Iran.
- Molecular Medicine Research Center, Hamadan University of Medical Science, Hamadan, Iran.
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Ameliorative Effects of Vitamins A, C, and E on Sperm Parameters, Testis Histopathology, and Oxidative Stress Status in Zinc Oxide Nanoparticle-Treated Rats. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 2023:4371611. [PMID: 36704721 PMCID: PMC9873442 DOI: 10.1155/2023/4371611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
One of the most often utilized nanoparticles (NPs) in several technologies is zinc oxide (ZnO) NPs. However, these NPs are said to have harmful effects on the reproductive system. Thus, we designed this study to specify the potential preventive activity of vitamins (Vits) A, C, and E, as antioxidants, against toxicity of ZnO NPs in the testes of rats. A total of 54 Wistar rats were arranged in 9 groups of 6 and then orally received water (control 1), olive oil (control 2), Vit A (1000 IU/kg), Vit C (200 mg/kg), Vit E (100 IU/kg), ZnO (200 mg/kg), ZnO+Vit A, ZnO+Vit C, and ZnO+Vit E. To determine the amount of testicular injury, sperm analysis and histological evaluation were performed. In addition, oxidative stress status was examined using colorimetric and qRT-PCR methods. Our findings suggest that ZnO NPs cause adverse effects on sperm parameters and testicular histology. Furthermore, oxidative biomarkers (malondialdehyde and total oxidant capacity) were enhanced in the ZnO group. By contrast, the gene expression and activities of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, GPx, and CAT) noted a remarkable decrease in the ZnO group regarding control (p < 0.05). However, oxidative markers were remarkably mitigated after combined treatment of ZnO NPs and Vits A, C, or E compared to the rats given ZnO NPs (p < 0.05). Additionally, compared to the ZnO NP group, the rats receiving Vits+ZnO NPs exhibit increased antioxidant enzyme activity and mRNA expression (p < 0.05). The findings demonstrate the abovementioned Vits' ameliorative effects on toxicity incurred by ZnO NPs.
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Investigation of the Potential Key Genes and the Multitarget Mechanisms of Polygonum cuspidatum against Heart Failure Based on Network Pharmacology and Experimental Validation. DISEASE MARKERS 2022; 2022:7784021. [PMID: 35669500 PMCID: PMC9167087 DOI: 10.1155/2022/7784021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Revised: 03/19/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In this study, systematic pharmacology and bioinformatic approaches were employed to identify the potential targets of Polygonum cuspidatum (PC) for treating heart failure (HF). The active ingredients of PC were screened by using the TCMSP database, and HF-related genes were identified in the GEO database. Then, the herb-HF targeted-gene networks were constructed using Cytoscape software. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) functional analyses were performed to obtain the enriched molecular pathways associated with the pathogenesis of HF. Finally, in vitro experiment was performed to evidence network pharmacology analysis. 170 intersection genes were obtained, and key genes (FOXO3, NFKB1, and TNF) were identified. Besides, GO and KEGG findings indicated that PC treatment of HF was achieved via regulating apoptosis, IL-17 signaling pathway, TNF signaling pathway, response to oxidative stress, and response to reactive oxygen species. And cell experiment revealed that PC could decrease the expression of NFKB1 and TNF and increase the expression of FOXO3, SOD1, and GPX1 in H9C2 cells. These findings showed that the therapeutic mechanism of PC in the treatment of HF may be associated with the regulation of inflammation-related and oxidative stress-related genes.
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Vitamin Supplementation Protects against Nanomaterial-Induced Oxidative Stress and Inflammation Damages: A Meta-Analysis of In Vitro and In Vivo Studies. Nutrients 2022; 14:nu14112214. [PMID: 35684016 PMCID: PMC9182933 DOI: 10.3390/nu14112214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2022] [Revised: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The extensive applications of nanomaterials have increased their toxicities to human health. As a commonly recommended health care product, vitamins have been reported to exert protective roles against nanomaterial-induced oxidative stress and inflammatory responses. However, there have been some controversial conclusions in regards to this field of research. This meta-analysis aimed to comprehensively evaluate the roles and mechanisms of vitamins for cells and animals exposed to nanomaterials. Nineteen studies (seven in vitro, eleven in vivo and one in both) were enrolled by searching PubMed, EMBASE, and Cochrane Library databases. STATA 15.0 software analysis showed vitamin E treatment could significantly decrease the levels of oxidants [reactive oxygen species (ROS), total oxidant status (TOS), malondialdehyde (MDA)], increase anti-oxidant glutathione peroxidase (GPx), suppress inflammatory mediators (tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6, C-reactive protein, IgE), improve cytotoxicity (manifested by an increase in cell viability and a decrease in pro-apoptotic caspase-3 activity), and genotoxicity (represented by a reduction in the tail length). These results were less changed after subgroup analyses. Pooled analysis of in vitro studies indicated vitamin C increased cell viability and decreased ROS levels, but its anti-oxidant potential was not observed in the meta-analysis of in vivo studies. Vitamin A could decrease MDA, TOS and increase GPx, but its effects on these indicators were weaker than vitamin E. Also, the combination of vitamin A with vitamin E did not provide greater anti-oxidant effects than vitamin E alone. In summary, we suggest vitamin E alone supplementation may be a cost-effective option to prevent nanomaterial-induced injuries.
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Mihailovic V, Katanic Stankovic JS, Selakovic D, Rosic G. An Overview of the Beneficial Role of Antioxidants in the Treatment of Nanoparticle-Induced Toxicities. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2021; 2021:7244677. [PMID: 34820054 PMCID: PMC8608524 DOI: 10.1155/2021/7244677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Nanoparticles (NPs) are used in many products and materials for humans such as electronics, in medicine for drug delivery, as biosensors, in biotechnology, and in agriculture, as ingredients in cosmetics and food supplements. Besides that, NPs may display potentially hazardous properties on human health and the environment as a consequence of their abundant use in life nowadays. Hence, there is increased interest of researchers to provide possible therapeutic agents or dietary supplements for the amelioration of NP-induced toxicity. This review summarizes the new findings in the research of the use of antioxidants as supplements for the prevention and alleviation of harmful effects caused by exposure of organisms to NPs. Also, mechanisms involved in the formation of NP-induced oxidative stress and protective mechanisms using different antioxidant substances have also been elaborated. This review also highlights the potential of naturally occurring antioxidants for the enhancement of the antioxidant defense systems in the prevention and mitigation of organism damage caused by NP-induced oxidative stress. Based on the presented results of the most recent studies, it may be concluded that the role of antioxidants in the prevention and treatment of nanoparticle-induced toxicity is unimpeachable. This is particularly important in terms of oxidative stress suppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Mihailovic
- University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, Radoja Domanovica 12, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
| | - Jelena S. Katanic Stankovic
- University of Kragujevac, Institute for Information Technologies Kragujevac, Department of Science, Jovana Cvijica bb, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
| | - Dragica Selakovic
- University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Department of Physiology, Svetozara Markovica 69, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
| | - Gvozden Rosic
- University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Department of Physiology, Svetozara Markovica 69, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
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Mihailovic V, Katanic Stankovic JS, Selakovic D, Rosic G. An Overview of the Beneficial Role of Antioxidants in the Treatment of Nanoparticle-Induced Toxicities. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2021. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/7244677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Nanoparticles (NPs) are used in many products and materials for humans such as electronics, in medicine for drug delivery, as biosensors, in biotechnology, and in agriculture, as ingredients in cosmetics and food supplements. Besides that, NPs may display potentially hazardous properties on human health and the environment as a consequence of their abundant use in life nowadays. Hence, there is increased interest of researchers to provide possible therapeutic agents or dietary supplements for the amelioration of NP-induced toxicity. This review summarizes the new findings in the research of the use of antioxidants as supplements for the prevention and alleviation of harmful effects caused by exposure of organisms to NPs. Also, mechanisms involved in the formation of NP-induced oxidative stress and protective mechanisms using different antioxidant substances have also been elaborated. This review also highlights the potential of naturally occurring antioxidants for the enhancement of the antioxidant defense systems in the prevention and mitigation of organism damage caused by NP-induced oxidative stress. Based on the presented results of the most recent studies, it may be concluded that the role of antioxidants in the prevention and treatment of nanoparticle-induced toxicity is unimpeachable. This is particularly important in terms of oxidative stress suppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Mihailovic
- University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, Radoja Domanovica 12, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
| | - Jelena S. Katanic Stankovic
- University of Kragujevac, Institute for Information Technologies Kragujevac, Department of Science, Jovana Cvijica bb, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
| | - Dragica Selakovic
- University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Department of Physiology, Svetozara Markovica 69, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
| | - Gvozden Rosic
- University of Kragujevac, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Department of Physiology, Svetozara Markovica 69, 34000 Kragujevac, Serbia
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