Histamine (Scombroid) Fish Poisoning: a Comprehensive Review

Development of machine learning-based shelf-life prediction models for multiple marine fish species and construction of a real-time prediction platform

At least 10 million tons of seafood products are spoiled or damaged during transportation or storage every year worldwide. Monitoring the freshness of seafood in real time has become especially important. In this study, four machine learning algorithms were used for the first time to develop a multi-objective model that can simultaneously predict the shelf-life of five marine fish species at multiple storage temperatures using 14 features such as species, temperature, total viable count, K-value, total volatile basic‑nitrogen, sensory and E-nose-GC-Ms/Ms. as inputs. Among them, the radial basis function model performed the best, and the absolute errors of all test samples were <0.5. With the optimal model as the base layer, a real-time prediction platform was developed to meet the needs of practical applications. This study successfully realized multi-objective real-time prediction with accurate prediction results, providing scientific basis and technical support for food safety and quality.

Development and validation of a rapid and simple HILIC-MS/MS method for the determination of biogenic amines in tuna fish

The production of biogenic amines (BAs), which are markers of both quality and safety in fish and fishery products, is influenced by the harvesting technique, handling, and other operations including those carried out on board the vessel. Scombroid dark-meat fish (e.g. tuna) are the fish species most frequently linked to histamine poisoning. The most commonly found BAs in fish are histamine, tyramine, putrescine, and cadaverine, which are produced when microbes decarboxylate the corresponding free amino acids. In this study, a rapid and cost-effective HILIC-MS/MS method was developed and validated for the determination of putrescine, cadaverine, histamine and tyramine in tuna samples. A simple sample preparation procedure was followed using the solvent mixture MeOH/H2O (50/50, v/v), 0.1 % acetic acid for protein precipitation and analyte extraction. Intra- and inter-day accuracy, expressed as %Recovery (%R), ranged from 88.0 % (Cad) to 102.7 % (Tyr) and from 85.0 % (Cad) to 99.8 % (Tyr), respectively. Intra- and inter-day precision, expressed as %Relative Standard Deviation (%RSD), ranged from 0.4 % (Tyr, Put) to 3.3 % (His) and from 0.7 % (Tyr) to 5.0 % (Cad), respectively. Limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ) varied from 0.0009 to 0.0940 mg/kg and from 0.0030 mg/kg to 0.3100 mg/kg, respectively, depending on the analyte. Regarding the potential toxic effects linked to biogenic amines in foods, samples examined in this study showed no risk. The proposed method is an important analytical tool for routine analysis of BAs in fish products.

The factors influencing the concentration of histamine in jarred baby foods containing fish, considering evaluation of daily histamine intake

Histamine is one of the biogenic amines produced naturally in the human body, but also in foods, especially those rich in protein. Exogenous and endogenous histamine is subject to degradation in vivo, but in the case of sensitive groups, including children, these degradation processes may be less intense, resulting adverse health effects from histamine excess. The aim of the study was to determine the histamine content in jarred baby foods containing fish, taking into account the selected product characteristics and storage conditions. The study included 140 meals with added fish, intended for infants and young children, from 5 leading manufacturers available in Poland. The infant meals were analyzed on the day of opening, after 24 h and 48 h of storage in the refrigerator and at room temperature. Histamine concentration was determined by ELISA. The THQ was calculated from the EDI values for histamine. Histamine was present in all analyzed baby foods. On the day of opening, the products had a lower content of this monoamine (Me=2.59 mg/kg), which increased systematically during storage. Samples taken at 2° C after 48 hours showed an average histamine content of 4.4 mg/kg, while products stored at 22° C at the same time showed a 1.8-fold higher concentration of this monoamine (Me=7.9 mg/kg). Dishes containing tuna and sea fish had higher histamine levels on average than those containing pollock. The storage conditions of the children's food had a significant effect on histamine concentration. The level of histamine in baby foods was related to the amount and type of fish in certain products. The results indicate the need for increased awareness of the risks associated with histamine, especially in a group of people with increased sensitivity to this amine, which may include infants and young children.

Peptide-Based Recognition Agents of Histamine: A Biopanning Approach with Enhanced Specificity

Histamine is a biogenic amine that poses a potential threat to public health due to its toxicological effects. In this study, we identified histamine-binding peptides by screening a random 12-mer peptide library, employing a novel biopanning approach that excluded histidine-binding sequences in the final round. This additional step enhanced the selectivity of the peptides and prevented interference from histidine during detection. The binding affinities of synthesized peptides to histamine were assessed using isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). Among the identified peptides, HBF10 (SGFRDGIEDFLW) and HBF26 (IPLENQHKIYST) showed significant affinity to histamine, with Ka values of 2.56×104 (M-1) and 8.94×104 (M-1), respectively. Notably, the identified peptides did not demonstrate binding affinity towards histidine, despite its structural similarity to histamine. Subsequently, the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensor surface was prepared by immobilizing the peptide HBF26 to investigate the potential of the peptide as a recognition agent for histamine detection. The findings suggest that the identified peptides have an affinity to histamine specifically, showcasing their potential applications as diagnostic agents with specific targeting capabilities.

MOF-on-MOF heterostructure boosting AIE sensing and triggered structural collapse for histamine detection

We explored a novel preparation method for MOF-on-MOF heterostructured material (Zn-BTEC@ZIF-8). This prepared heterostructured material acts as a container, capable of adsorbing tetracycline hydrochloride molecules into its backbone through hydrogen bonding and π-π interactions. This phenomenon triggers an aggregation induced emission (AIE) effect, leading to the formation of luminescent bodies. The coordination between histamine and MOF was found to collapse the originally stabilized MOF-on-MOF structure. This collapse causes the splitting of the initially stabilized MOF-on-MOF structure from the aggregated state into fragments, resulting in the quenching of fluorescence in the fluorophore. Remarkably, the fluorescence quenching efficiency of this composite surpasses that of single-layer metal-organic framework (MOF) zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) or zinc-based MOF of pyromellitic acid (Zn-BTEC), enabling more sensitive detection of histamine. In this investigation, we constructed a label-free fluorescent sensor specifically designed for the detection of histamine, capitalizing on the AIE effect inherent in MOF-on-MOF architecture and the presence of tetracycline hydrochloride (Tet). The sensor demonstrates a rapid, straightforward, and stable response, allowing for histamine detection within 20 min. Notably, the sensor covers a detection range of 2-400 mg L-1, achieving a low detection limit of 1.458 mg L-1 The practical application of this sensor for quantitative detection of histamine in river water and various fish species exhibited robust performance, ensuring reliability and accuracy in real samples. Its potential application in food safety and environmental monitoring is evident, making it a valuable tool for addressing histamine-related challenges in these domains.

High-Resolution Comparative and Quantitative Proteomics of Biogenic-Amine-Producing Bacteria and Virulence Factors Present in Seafood

The presence of biogenic amines (histamine, tyramine, putrescine, and cadaverine) in seafood is a significant concern for food safety. This review describes for the first time a shotgun quantitative proteomics strategy to evaluate and compare foodborne strains of bacteria that produce biogenic amines in seafoods. This approach recognized 35,621 peptide spectrum matches, belonging to 20,792 peptides, and 4621 proteins. It allowed the determination of functional pathways and the classification of the strains into hierarchical clusters. The study identified a protein-protein interaction network involving 1160 nodes/10,318 edges. Proteins were related to energy pathways, spermidine biosynthesis, and putrescine metabolism. Label-free quantitative proteomics allowed the identification of differentially regulated proteins in specific strains such as putrescine aminotransferase, arginine decarboxylase, and l-histidine-binding protein. Additionally, 123 peptides were characterized as virulence factors and 299 peptide biomarkers were selected to identify bacterial species in fish products. This study presents the most extensive proteomic repository and progress in the science of food biogenic bacteria and could be applied in the food industry for the detection of bacterial contamination that produces histamine and other biogenic amines during food processing/storage.

Formation and Detection of Gizzerosine in Animal Feed Matrices: Progress and Perspectives

Gizzerosine is responsible for gizzard erosion and black vomit, owing to excessive gastric acid secretion in poultry. It is a biogenic amine that forms during feed processing. Gizzerosine, a derivative of histamine, is a serious threat to animal feed safety and poultry production because it is more potent after ingestion and more harmful to poultry than histamine. The difficulty of obtaining gizzerosine and the lack of simple, rapid, and sensitive in vitro detection techniques have hindered studies on the effects of gizzerosine on gizzard health and poultry production. In this review, we evaluated the natural formation and the chemical synthesis methods of gizzerosine and introduced seven detection methods and their principles for analyzing gizzerosine. This review summarizes the issues of gizzerosine research and suggests methods for the future development of gizzerosine detection methods.

Au@Ag Core-Shell Nanoparticles for Colorimetric and Surface-Enhanced Raman-Scattering-Based Multiplex Competitive Lateral Flow Immunoassay for the Simultaneous Detection of Histamine and Parvalbumin in Fish

Foodborne allergies and illnesses represent a major global health concern. In particular, fish can trigger life-threatening food allergic reactions and poisoning effects, mainly caused by the ingestion of parvalbumin toxin. Additionally, preformed histamine in less-than-fresh fish serves as a toxicological alert. Consequently, the analytical assessment of parvalbumin and histamine levels in fish becomes a critical public health safety measure. The multiplex detection of both analytes has emerged as an important issue. The analytical detection of parvalbumin and histamine requires different assays; while the determination of parvalbumin is commonly carried out by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, histamine is analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography. In this study, we present an approach for multiplexing detection and quantification of trace amounts of parvalbumin and histamine in canned fish. This is achieved through a colorimetric and surface-enhanced Raman-scattering-based competitive lateral flow assay (SERS-LFIA) employing plasmonic nanoparticles. Two distinct SERS nanotags tailored for histamine or β-parvalbumin detection were synthesized. Initially, spherical 50 nm Au@Ag core-shell nanoparticles (Au@Ag NPs) were encoded with either rhodamine B isothiocyanate (RBITC) or malachite green isothiocyanate (MGITC). Subsequently, these nanoparticles were bioconjugated with anti-β-parvalbumin and antihistamine, forming the basis for our detection and quantification methodology. Additionally, our approach demonstrates the use of SERS-LFIA for the sensitive and multiplexed detection of parvalbumin and histamine on a single test line, paving the way for on-site detection employing portable Raman instruments.

Approach to Idiopathic Anaphylaxis in Adolescents

Anaphylaxis is a potentially-life threatening condition. Adolescents are particularly vulnerable due to increased risk-taking behaviors, poor disease management, and minimized perception of risk. Although most anaphylaxis can be attributed to food, drug, or venom allergy via a detailed history and confirmatory studies, in nearly 1 in 5 cases, the cause may not be obvious. Clinical differentials including rare allergens, cofactors, mast-cell disorders, and mimic disorders can increase the likelihood of discovering of the cause of anaphylaxis.

A do-it-yourself electrochemical cell based on pencil leads and transparency sheets: Application to the enzymatic determination of histamine

The availability of more efficient analytical methods that answer the world's demands is a challenge and their development continues to be a difficult task. In this work the construction of an electrochemical cell, based on low-cost and accessible materials, that can be easily constructed and used for electroanalytical purposes, is described. Pencil leads were used as electrodes and a transparency sheet as the base. This cell was used as transducer for developing an amperometric biosensor for the quantification of histamine, which is the only biogenic amine regulated by law. The analysis was based on the use of diamine oxidase as biorecognition element, hexacyanoferrate(III) as electron-transfer mediator, and chronoamperometry, at +0.5 V during 100 s, to record the analytical signal. A linear relationship between histamine concentration and the analytical signal was established between 5.0 and 35 mg L-1 and a low limit of detection (1.0 mg L-1) was achieved. The analysis of different fish species (sardine and tuna) was performed, obtaining recovery values between 102% and 110%. The stability of the sensor is noteworthy: it maintained 95% of the initial analytical signal after 15 days.

[Differential diagnosis in food allergy]

It is important to establish the differential diagnosis of food allergy with other disorders, for example: toxic reactions that occur in any person exposed to a sufficient amount of some allergen, and non-toxic reactions that depend on individual susceptibility (food allergy or intolerance). The differential diagnosis is decisive to establish the appropriate treatment. Food intolerance involves adverse reactions to foods without any immunological response involved, and commonly manifests with gastrointestinal symptoms (malaise, abdominal pain or diarrhea). Food allergy is an exaggerated reaction of the immune system, often mediated by IgE, that can trigger serious symptoms (hives, inflammation, respiratory distress, even anaphylaxis). The complex thing is because the symptoms sometimes overlap. To establish an accurate diagnosis, exhaustive clinical evaluation, laboratory tests and, in some cases, controlled provocation tests are required. It is important to understand these distinctions, because treatment and management vary significantly. Food intolerance involves the elimination or reduction of the food that triggers the allergic reaction and requires rigorous measures (complete avoidance of the allergen and availability of epinephrine in cases of severe reactions).

The affinity of histamine to serum albumin: Capillary electrophoresis-frontal analysis and in-silico molecular docking approaches

Histamine is a biogenic amine found in various body tissues and responsible for many critical vital activities. It is also responsible for allergic reactions in the body. Ingestion of foods containing high amounts of histamine can cause fatal allergic reactions. Albumin in plasma controls drugs and free concentrations of bioactive constituents taken to the body with food. Hence, this study aimed to characterise the interactions of histamine with bovine serum albumin. Capillary electrophoresis in the frontal analysis mode was employed in this study as a practical approach for assessing histamine-bovine serum albumin affinity. The plateau-shaped free histamine peak was well separated from the bovine serum albumin (BSA)-histamine complex peak. The free histamine concentration was obtained by following the height of the free histamine peak. Whereas the bound histamine concentrations were obtained by calculating the difference between the height of total and free histamine peaks. Histamine bound to BSA at one independent site with a Kb value of 2.50 × 103 L/mol. Moreover, an in-silico molecular docking method was performed, and it was revealed that the binding site of histamine was located closer to Lysine-131 in subdomain IIA of bovine serum albumin.

IgE-Mediated and Non-IgE-Mediated Fish Allergy in Pediatric Age: A Holistic Approach-A Consensus by Diagnostic Commission of the Italian Society of Pediatric Allergy and Immunology

Fish is one of the "big nine" foods triggering allergic reactions. For this reason, fish allergens must be accurately specified on food labels. Fish allergy affects less than 1% of the world population, but a higher prevalence is observed in pediatric cohorts, up to 7%. Parvalbumin is the main fish allergen found in the muscles. In childhood, sensitization to fish allergens occurs most frequently through the ingestion of fish, rarely transcutaneously or by inhalation. Fish allergy symptoms usually appear within two hours of the allergen contact. The diagnosis begins with the collection of the history. If it is suggestive of fish allergy, prick tests or the measurement of serum-specific IgE should be performed to confirm the suspicion. The oral food challenge is the gold standard for the diagnosis. It is not recommended in case of a severe allergic reaction. It is important to make a differential diagnosis with anisakiasis or scombroid poisoning, which have overlapping clinical features but differ in pathogenesis. Traditionally, managing fish allergy involves avoiding the triggering species (sometimes all bony fish species) and requires an action plan for accidental exposures. The present review will analyze IgE- and non-IgE-mediated fish allergy in children from epidemiology, pathogenesis to clinical features. Moreover, clinical management will be addressed with a particular focus on potential nutritional deficiencies.

Assessment of Postharvest Practices of Tuna Sold at the Honiara Fish Market in the Solomon Islands

The study is aimed at assessing the impacts of postharvest handling practices on the quality and safety of tuna sold at the Honiara Fish Market (HFM), Solomon Islands. Two major approaches were adopted: (1) face-to-face interviews of 60 participants using questionnaires and physical observations of the supply chains and postharvest handling practices and (2) determination of time-temperature, quality index, histamine, and microbial load of tuna and contact surfaces. Sampling was conducted on both the wet season (WS) and dry season (DS), of which 36 samples from both batches of fresh tuna (FT) and brined tuna (BT) were analyzed. Three critical control points (CCPs) were identified in the supply chains of both FT and BT, where samples were obtained for scientific analyses. The average body temperature for WS tuna exposed for 9-10 h with low or no ice after catch was 3°C for FT and 15°C for BT, while DS samples were 26°C and 31°C for FT and BT, respectively. The quality index (QI) for WS showed a significant difference (P < 0.05) at 0 for FT and 8 for BT, while both DS showed a significant increase at 16 for BT and 5 for FT. Histamine levels for all the samples increased across the three CCPs, however with levels <50 mg/L, while microbial load for both seasons and for both samples were within the required specifications. However, contact surfaces for both seasons revealed high levels of microbial contamination. This study reveals that poor handling practices along the tuna supply chains of fish sold at the HFM were observed; however, all the tuna was safe for consumption when cooked properly.

Mimics of Allergy and Angioedema: Scombroid, Mast Cell Activation Disorders, and Hereditary Alpha Tryptasemia

Scombroid poisoning, systemic mastocytosis, and hereditary alpha tryptasemia all present with episodes that resemble allergic reactions. Knowledge regarding systemic mastocytosis and hereditary alpha tryptasemia is quickly evolving. Epidemiology, pathophysiology, and strategies to identify and diagnose are discussed. Evidence-based management in the emergency setting and beyond is also explored and summarized. Key differences are described between these events and allergic reactions.

Histamine-producing bacteria and their role in gastrointestinal disorders

INTRODUCTION

Gut microbiota produces thousands of metabolites, which have a huge impact on the host health. Specific microbial strains are able to synthesize histamine, a molecule with a crucial role in many physiologic and pathologic mechanisms of the host. This function is mediated by the histidine decarboxylase enzyme (HDC) that converts the amino acid histidine to histamine.

AREAS COVERED

This review summarizes the emerging data on histamine production by gut microbiota, and the effect of bacterial-derived histamine in different clinical contexts, including cancer, irritable bowel syndrome, and other gastrointestinal and extraintestinal pathologies. This review will also outline the impact of histamine on the immune system and the effect of probiotics that can secrete histamine. Search methodology: we searched the literature on PubMed up to February 2023.

EXPERT OPINION

The potential of modulating gut microbiota to influence histamine production is a promising area of research, and although our knowledge of histamine-secreting bacteria is still limited, recent advances are exploring their diagnostic and therapeutical potential. Diet, probiotics, and pharmacological treatments directed to the modulation of histamine-secreting bacteria may in the future potentially be employed in the prevention and management of several gastrointestinal and extraintestinal disorders.

Development of cloth-based microfluidic devices for rapid determination of histamine in fish and fishery products

A cloth-based analytical device combined with electrochemiluminescence detection (CAD-ECL) was described for rapid determination  of histamine (HA). The CAD device was produced by screen-printing a conductive carbon ink onto a patterned hydrophobic electrochemical microfluidic chamber to fabricate the three-carbon electrode system on a single hydrophilic cloth. The introduction of carbon nanodots linked to chitosan on the working carbon electrode surface enhanced the catalytic performance and overcame the resistance of the cotton fiber material. On this basis, the enhancement of the electrochemiluminescence (ECL) signal of the tris(2,2'-bipyridyl) ruthenium(II) complex, caused by HA, was observed in a phosphate buffer solution at pH 7.6. The proposed CAD-ECL sensor was successfully applied to the quantification of HA in fish and fishery samples with good linearity between ECL intensity and the logarithm of HA concentration in the range 1.0 to 1000.0 µg L^-1 with a low detection limit of 0.82 µg L^-1.

Portable colorimetric enzymatic disposable biosensor for histamine and simultaneous histamine/tyramine determination using a smartphone

Tyramine oxidase (TAO), peroxidase (HRP), and Amplex Red (AR) have been immobilized on cellulose to obtain disposable biosensors for the determination of histamine. During the enzymatic reaction, AR is oxidized and a pink spot is obtained. Using a smartphone and measuring the G (green) color coordinate, histamine can be determined in the presence of other biogenic amines (putrescine and cadaverine) in concentrations ranging from 2·10^-5 M to 5·10^-4 M with a 7.5·10^-6 M limit of detection (LoD). Despite tyramine interference, experimental conditions are provided which allow rapid and simple histamine and simultaneous histamine/tyramine (semi)quantitative determination in mixtures. Finally, tyramine and histamine were determined in a tuna extract with good results (compared to the reference HPLC-MS method). The methodology can also be applied in solution allowing histamine (and simultaneous histamine/tyramine) determination with a lower LoD (1.8·10^-7 M) and a similar selectivity.

Ratio of Histamine-Producing/Non-Histamine-Producing Subgroups of Tetragenococcus halophilus Determines the Histamine Accumulation during Spontaneous Fermentation of Soy Sauce

Strain specificity (within-species variation) of microorganisms occurs widely in nature. It might affect microbiome construction and function in a complex microbial environment. Tetragenococcus halophilus, a halophilic bacterium that generally is used in high salt food fermentation, consists of two histamine-producing and non-histamine-producing subgroups. It is unclear whether and how the strain specificity of histamine-producing capacity influences the microbial community function during food fermentation. Here, based on systematic bioinformatic analysis, histamine production dynamic analysis, clone library construction analysis, and cultivation-based identification, we identified that T. halophilus is the focal histamine-producing microorganism during soy sauce fermentation. Furthermore, we discovered that a larger number and ratio of histamine-producing subgroups of T. halophilus significantly contributed more histamine production. We were able to artificially decrease the ratio of histamine-producing to non-histamine-producing subgroups of T. halophilus in complex soy sauce microbiota and realized the reduction of histamine by 34%. This study emphasizes the significance of strain specificity in regulating microbiome function. This study investigated how strain specificity influenced microbial community function and developed an efficient technique for histamine control. IMPORTANCE Inhibiting the production of microbiological hazards under the assumption of stable and high-quality fermentation is a critical and time-consuming task for the food fermentation industry. For spontaneously fermented food, it can be realized theoretically by finding and controlling the focal hazard-producing microorganism in complex microbiota. This work used histamine control in soy sauce as a model and developed a system-level approach to identify and regulate the focal hazard-producing microorganism. We discovered that the strain specificity of focal hazard-producing microorganisms had an important impact on hazard accumulation. Microorganisms frequently exhibit strain specificity. Strain specificity is receiving increasing interest since it determines not only microbial robustness but also microbial community assembly and microbiome function. This study creatively explored how the strain specificity of microorganisms influenced microbiome function. In addition, we believe that this work provides an excellent model for microbiological hazard control which can promote future work in other systems.

Detection, Identification, and Inactivation of Histamine-forming Bacteria in Seafood: A Mini-review

Seafood is one of the essential sources of nutrients for the human diet. However, they can be subject to contamination and can cause foodborne illnesses, including scombroid fish poisoning caused by histamine. Many microorganisms can produce enzymes that eventually decompose endogenous histidine to histamine in postmortem fish muscles and tissues. One of these is histamine-forming bacteria (HFB), primarily found in the gills, gut, and skin of fishes. Previous studies linked a plethora of Gram-negative HFB including Morganella spp. and Photobacterium spp. to scombroid fish poisoning from many types of seafood, especially the Scombridae family. These bacteria possess the hdc gene to produce histidine decarboxylase enzyme. It was reported that Gram-negative HFB produced 6345 ppm in tuna and 1223 ppm in Spanish mackerel. Interestingly, Gram-positive HFB have been isolated in the seafood samples with lower histamine levels. It suggests that Gram-negative HFB are the major contributor to the accumulation of histamine in seafood. Several analytical methods are available to detect and identify HFB and their histamine metabolites from seafood substrates. Rapid test kits can be used in food production settings for early detection of histamine to avoid food intoxication. Furthermore, high hydrostatic pressure and irradiation treatment could prevent the proliferation of HFB and inactivate the existing histidine decarboxylase (HDC) activity. As demonstrated in different seafood model systems, the HDC activity was deactivated at a maximum high hydrostatic pressure level of 400 MPa. The complete inactivation of HFB was achieved by gamma irradiation at a dose of 4.0 kGy. Other postharvest treatments, like enzymatic degradation and electrolyzed oxidizing water, were studied as sustainable methods for bacterial growth prevention and enzyme inactivation. However, other HFB react differently to these treatment conditions, and further studies are recommended.

A Comprehensive Review with Future Insights on the Processing and Safety of Fermented Fish and the Associated Changes

As an easily spoiled source of valuable proteins and lipids, fish is preserved by fermentation in many cultures. Over time, diverse types of products have been produced from fish fermentation aside from whole fish, such as fermented fish paste and sauces. The consumption of fermented fish products has been shown to improve both physical and mental health due to the composition of the products. Fermented fish products can be dried prior to the fermentation process and include various additives to enhance the flavours and aid in fermentation. At the same time, the fermentation process and its conditions play a major role in determining the quality and safety of the product as the compositions change biochemically throughout fermentation. Additionally, the necessity of certain microorganisms and challenges in avoiding harmful microbes are reviewed to further optimise fermentation conditions in the future. Although several advanced technologies have emerged to produce better quality products and easier processes, the diversity of processes, ingredients, and products of fermented fish warrants further study, especially for the sake of the consumers' health and safety. In this review, the nutritional, microbial, and sensory characteristics of fermented fish are explored to better understand the health benefits along with the safety challenges introduced by fermented fish products. An exploratory approach of the published literature was conducted to achieve the purpose of this review using numerous books and online databases, including Google Scholar, Web of Science, Scopus, ScienceDirect, and PubMed Central, with the goal of obtaining, compiling, and reconstructing information on a variety of fundamental aspects of fish fermentation. This review explores significant information from all available library databases from 1950 to 2022. This review can assist food industries involved in fermented fish commercialization to efficiently ferment and produce better quality products by easing the fermentation process without risking the health and safety of consumers.

A Review on Bio- and Chemosensors for the Detection of Biogenic Amines in Food Safety Applications: The Status in 2022

This article provides an overview on the broad topic of biogenic amines (BAs) that are a persistent concern in the context of food quality and safety. They emerge mainly from the decomposition of amino acids in protein-rich food due to enzymes excreted by pathogenic bacteria that infect food under inappropriate storage conditions. While there are food authority regulations on the maximum allowed amounts of, e.g., histamine in fish, sensitive individuals can still suffer from medical conditions triggered by biogenic amines, and mass outbreaks of scombroid poisoning are reported regularly. We review first the classical techniques used for selective BA detection and quantification in analytical laboratories and focus then on sensor-based solutions aiming at on-site BA detection throughout the food chain. There are receptor-free chemosensors for BA detection and a vastly growing range of bio- and biomimetic sensors that employ receptors to enable selective molecular recognition. Regarding the receptors, we address enzymes, antibodies, molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), and aptamers as the most recent class of BA receptors. Furthermore, we address the underlying transducer technologies, including optical, electrochemical, mass-sensitive, and thermal-based sensing principles. The review concludes with an assessment on the persistent limitations of BA sensors, a technological forecast, and thoughts on short-term solutions.

Molecular Mechanisms of Scombroid Food Poisoning

Scombroid food poisoning (SFP) is a foodborne disease that develops after consumption of fresh fish and, rarely, seafood that has fine organoleptic characteristics but contains a large amount of exogenous histamine. SFP, like other food pseudo-allergic reactions (FPA), is a disorder that is clinically identical to allergic reactions type I, but there are many differences in their pathogenesis. To date, SFP has been widespread throughout the world and is an urgent problem, although exact epidemiological data on incidence varies greatly. The need to distinguish SFP from true IgE-associated allergy to fish and seafood is one of the most difficult examples of the differential diagnosis of allergic conditions. The most important difference is the absence of an IgE response in SFP. The pathogenesis of SFP includes a complex system of interactions between the body and chemical triggers such as exogenous histamine, other biogenic amines, cis-urocanic acid, salicylates, and other histamine liberators. Because of the wide range of molecular pathways involved in this process, it is critical to understand their differences. This may help predict and prevent poor outcomes in patients and contribute to the development of adequate hygienic rules and regulations for seafood product safety. Despite the vast and lengthy history of research on SFP mechanisms, there are still many blank spots in our understanding of this condition. The goals of this review are to differentiate various molecular mechanisms of SFP and describe methods of hygienic regulation of some biogenic amines that influence the concentration of histamine in the human body and play an important role in the mechanism of SFP.

Scombroid Poisoning: An Overview for the Emergency Nurse Practitioner

Scombroid poisoning is a common fish-borne disease in clinical settings. Fish that has not been adequately stored after catching can allow bacteria to proliferate, which causes the conversion of histidine to histamine. Once histamine has formed, freezing or cooking the fish will not remove the histamine content. Once the fish is consumed, histamine is released, causing toxicity to the patient with symptoms including cutaneous, gastrointestinal, and anaphylactoid. Emergency nurse practitioners should identify, appropriately diagnose, and treat individuals with scombroid poisoning and avoid misdiagnosing it as fish allergy.

Development of Histamine in Fresh and Canned Tuna Steaks Stored under Different Experimental Temperature Conditions

Among biogenic amines, histamine is most frequently involved in foodborne intoxication. To evaluate histamine formation in tuna, several storage conditions were reproduced. An LC-MS/MS method was used for analytical determinations. Fresh tuna samples (not contaminated and grafted with tuna muscle naturally incurred with histamine at 6000 mg/kg) were stored at 4, 12, and 20 °C, and daily samples were collected for 6 days. The development of histamine was observed only in grafted tuna samples. At 4 °C, histamine formation progressed from 12.8 mg/kg (day 1) up to 68.2 mg/kg (day 6). At 12 °C, higher concentrations developed (23.9 mg/kg on day 1 up to 2721.3 mg/kg on day 6) relative to 20 °C (from 12.0 to 1681.0 mg/kg). It was found that at 4 °C, if grafted tuna was submerged in oil, histamine formation progressed more slowly. In a naturally contaminated sample, it was observed that the histamine distribution was uniform, while the normal cooking process did not affect the histamine level. Furthermore, it was found that the use of histamine-contaminated equipment for food handling may result in histamine formation in food. These results confirm the importance of implementing good hygiene practices and respecting the cold chain.

Environmental influences on childhood asthma-The effect of diet and microbiome on asthma

Early life dietary patterns and timely maturation of mucosa-associated microbial communities are important factors influencing immune development and for establishing robust immune tolerance networks. Microbial fermentation of dietary components in vivo generates a vast array of molecules, some of which are integral components of the molecular circuitry that regulates immune and metabolic functions. These in turn protect against aberrant inflammatory processes and promote effector immune responses that quickly eliminate pathogens. Multiple studies suggest that changes in dietary habits, altered microbiome composition, and microbial metabolism are associated with asthma risk and disease severity. While it remains unclear whether these microbiome alterations are a cause or consequence of dysregulated immune responses, there is significant potential for using diet in targeted manipulations of the gut microbiome and its metabolic functions in promoting immune health. In this article, we will summarize our knowledge to date on the role of dietary patterns and microbiome activities on immune responses within the airways. Given the malleability of the human microbiome, its integration into the immune system, and its responsiveness to diet, this makes it a highly attractive target for therapeutic and nutritional intervention in children with asthma.

Histamine Content in Selected Production Stages of Fish Products

Introduction

Histamine intoxication, known as scombroid fish poisoning, is caused by the consumption of foods with high levels of histamine. This biogenic amine is formed as a result of histidine decarboxylation by bacterial decarboxylases present in food, including fish and fish products. The aim of this study was to investigate the content of histamine at different production stages of canned, marinated and smoked fish.

Material and Methods

Raw fish, semi-finished fish products, and the final products of the same production batches were collected between 2019 and 2022 from different fish production facilities in Poland. A total of 133 raw fish samples and 76 smoked fish, 54 brined fish, 39 canned fish and 18 marinated fish final products were analysed using high performance liquid chromatography with a diode array detector.

Results

Histamine was identified in 55 (17.2%) out of 320 tested samples, including 8 samples of raw fish with a histamine level above 100 mg/kg. However, no samples of fish products had histamine content above the European Union Commission limit.

Conclusion

The obtained results show that fish products on the Polish market are generally safe for consumers in regard to histamine intoxication risk.

An allergist's approach to food poisoning

Foodborne illnesses represent a significant global health concern. These preventable diseases lead to substantial mortality and morbidity worldwide. Substantial overlap with food allergy exists with similar clinical presentations and symptom onset. Knowledge of the typically implicated microorganisms and toxins can help properly identify these diseases. A thorough history is essential to differentiate between these 2 disorders. The types of food implicated may be similar including milk, egg, fish, and shellfish. The timing of symptom onset may overlap and lead to misdiagnosis of disorders such as food protein-induced enterocolitis syndrome. Classically, histamine-related food poisoning is also typically confused with true food allergy and may be seen as related to fish and cheese. Knowledge of epidemiology, patterns, and etiology of allergic conditions and foodborne illness may help the allergist differentiate among these common diseases.

Annular urticarial lesions

Annular urticarial configurations are often associated with acute and chronic urticaria. Such lesions may be short-lived, migratory, transient, pruritic, and resolving with no residual evidence, making the diagnosis of urticaria an obvious one. Annular urticarial lesions can be the presenting signs of various cutaneous and systemic diseases. The differentiation of urticarial lesions may be made by considering the duration of an individual lesion longer than 24 hours, with burning and pain sensation in the lesions or lack of pruritus; skin marks such as postinflammatory pigmentation or purpura after resolution of the lesions; associated scaling or vehiculation in the lesions; systemic symptoms such as arthralgia, fever or fatigue; and several abnormal laboratory findings. The main differential diagnoses of annular urticarial lesions include urticarial vasculitis, autoinflammatory syndromes, hypersensitivity reactions, and connective tissue diseases.

Occurrence of Histamine in Commercial Cat Foods under Different Storage Conditions

In fish-based foods, one of the effects of inappropriate storage can be the formation of biogenic amines. Among these, histamine is considered one of the most toxic. The purpose of the present study is to assess the occurrence of histamine in fish-based pet foods, and to evaluate the changes in histamine content during storage at different temperatures. For the analysis, an LC-MS/MS method was used. Fifty-eight pet foods were purchased, and an aliquot of them was analyzed just after opening the packages. Histamine was detected in 12 samples and concentrations ranged from 1.5 to 30.1 mg/kg. The remaining of each positive sample was divided into seven subsamples. One of them was used as a control sample and kept at −20 °C, while the other six were exposed to different environmental conditions. Samples exposed to room temperature showed no significant changes in histamine levels, while samples exposed to high temperatures showed significant increases in histamine content. Finally, samples exposed to refrigerator temperature showed a slight decrease in histamine levels. Under the experimental conditions, the EU limit of 100 mg/kg established for fishery products was never exceeded. These results seem to indicate a low risk of histamine intoxication in cats fed fish-based pet food.

Exploring the functional and metabolic effects of adding garra fish meal to a plant-based broiler chicken diet

The present study evaluated the metabolic and functional effects of adding garra meal to a broiler chicken diet. Three hundred twenty Sasso-breed day-old chicks were randomly assigned to four dietary treatments with either 0, 10, 20 or 30% garra meal added on top of formulated starter and grower basal diets. The experiment lasted for 42 days. Feed intake and body weight gain increased at the starter and grower phases of broilers with garra meal addition (P < 0.05). Broiler chickens fed 30% garra meal were more efficient in converting feed to body weight and yielded the highest carcass weight (P < 0.05). Crude protein ileal digestibility coefficient was higher with 20% (76.2%), and crude fat with 20 (92.1) and 30% (92.6%) garra meal receiving groups (P < 0.05). The increase in individual and total esterified carnitine concentrations in dried blood spots demonstrated the elevated metabolic rate with garra meal addition (P < 0.05). A better supply of glucogenic substrate to the citric acid cycle was seen with garra meal addition due to the increase of propionylcarnitine to acetylcarnitine ratio (P < 0.05) without any apparent effect on ketogenesis in terms of serum 3-hydroxybutyrylcarnitine to acetylcarnitine ratio. Yet, it likely showed that part of the amino acids from garra meal were used as glucogenic substrate (P < 0.05). Histomorphometry data showed 20% garra meal addition elevated villus height, crypt depth and their ratio in the proximal parts of the small intestine (duodenum and jejunum) with the opposite results observed in the more distal part (ileum) with the highest for the control group (P < 0.05). It can be concluded that garra meal improved broiler performance when added to a plant-based diet and only few parameters warranted for caution when using more up to 30% garra meal addition. Beyond growth performance, garra meal generated a shift to a more efficient digestion, absorption and nutrient metabolism.

Prevalence of Histamine-Forming Bacteria in Two Kinds of Salted Fish at Town Markets of Guangdong Province of South China

ABSTRACT

Histamine-forming bacteria (HFB) were isolated from the 70 salted fish samples bought from town markets of Guangdong Province of south China. In addition, the histamine-forming ability of HFB was analyzed. There were 31 strains of HFB isolated from 36 salted fish pickled overnight. They were identified as six bacteria species: Vibrio alginolyticus, Vibrio rumoiensis, Staphylococcus saprophyticus, Staphylococcus xylosus, Lactococcus lactis, and Morganella morganii. The rate of confirmation of V. alginolyticus was highest (23 of 31), exceeding 200 mg/kg histamine. In particular, M. morganii produced a histamine amount that exceeded 2,000 mg/kg, although it was only one isolate in this study. In addition, five bacteria species of HFB were isolated from 34 dried salted fish. Among them, S. saprophyticus was dominant in the dried salted fish but produced histamines below 200 mg/kg. However, Enterobacter aerogenes from dried salted fish formed a histamine amount exceeding 200 mg/kg. The study showed that the dominant strain of HFB was different in two kinds of salted fish. Both kinds of salted fish contained HFB whose histamine-forming capacity exceeded 200 mg/kg. As a result, the safety of salted fish should be of concern, especially salted fish pickled overnight.

HIGHLIGHTS

Recent Progress of Fluorescence Sensors for Histamine in Foods

Biological amines are organic nitrogen compounds that can be produced by the decomposition of spoiled food. As an important biological amine, histamine has played an important role in food safety. Many methods have been used to detect histamine in foods. Compared with traditional analysis methods, fluorescence sensors as an adaptable detection tool for histamine in foods have the advantages of low cost, convenience, less operation, high sensitivity, and good visibility. In terms of food safety, fluorescence sensors have shown great utilization potential. In this review, we will introduce the applications and development of fluorescence sensors in food safety based on various types of materials. The performance and effectiveness of the fluorescence sensors are discussed in detail regarding their structure, luminescence mechanism, and recognition mechanism. This review may contribute to the exploration of the application of fluorescence sensors in food-related work.

Potential hazards associated with the consumption of Scombridae fish: Infection and toxicity from raw material and processing

Scombridae fish (tuna, bonito, and mackerel) have significant ecological and economic values. They are very appreciated by consumers worldwide for their high-quality flesh and for their high nutritional value. However, consumption of Scombridae fish is potentially hazardous. Indeed, several cases of infections and toxicity linked to the consumption of Scombridae fish as raw, or processed food products have been reported worldwide. In this review, we presented the most common health risks associated with Scombridae fish consumption. Diseases associated with the consumption of these fish are generally infectious or toxic and are caused by biological hazards such as bacteria, viruses, parasites, or chemicals hazards that enter the body through contaminated fish (Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons, histamine) or by physical contaminants such as heavy metals. The risks of contamination exist throughout the food chain, from primary production to the preparation of products for consumption.

Aquatic food animals in the United States: Status quo and challenges

This review summarizes (1) the U.S. status quo for aquatic food animal production and marketing; (2) major food safety and quality issues/concerns for aquatic food animals in the United States, including fish misbranding, finfish/shellfish allergies, pathogens, toxins and harmful residues, microplastics, and genetically engineered salmon; and (3) various U.S. regulations, guidances, and detection methods for the surveillance of fishery products. Overall, fish misbranding is the biggest challenge in the United States due to the relatively low inspection rate. In addition, due to the regulatory differences among countries, illegal animal drugs and/or pesticide residues might also be identified in imported aquatic food animals. Future regulatory and research directions could focus on further strengthening international cooperation, enhancing aquatic food animal inspection, and developing reliable, sensitive, and highly efficient detection methods.

The cold chain and the COVID-19 pandemic: an unusual increase in histamine content in fish samples collected in Southern Italy during lockdown

Objectives

We analysed 900 samples of fresh (250) and processed (650) fish products collected in Sicily (Southern Italy) in 2020 during the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic (hereafter: COVID-19).

Materials and methods

The samples were divided temporally based on five phases relating to the various restrictions imposed by the Italian government in this period. The validated method of ultra-high performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC) combined with a diode array detector (DAD) was then employed for the analysis.

Results

The samples collected during the Phase I lockdown period and after it had ended (Phase II) revealed significant increases in the mean histamine levels: 41.89±87.58 mg/kg ^-1 and 24.91±76.76 mg/kg ^-1, respectively. The 11 (1.3% of the total) fresh fish samples that were identified as being non-compliant with EC Reg. 2073/2005 were only found during these two periods. All the processed samples were always compliant. The histamine values decreased as the restrictions eased, achieving a mean value of 11.16±9.3 mgkg ^-1 (Phase III).

Conclusions

There was an increase in the incidence of fish samples that were non-compliant with EC Reg. 2073/2005 compared to previous surveillance data. These results provide a first report on the effect of lockdown measures on food safety and the cold chain. Our findings must cause food safety operators to intensify their controls over fresh fish products in such periods to safeguard consumer health. Further studies are required to evaluate whether the same trend would be observed with other food contaminants.

[Literature Review on the Type of Fish and Histamine-producing Bacteria Associated with Histamine Poisonings in Japan]

Histamine poisoning has been reported worldwide. Improvements in refrigeration technology have led to a reduction in this food poisoning; however, it continues to occur. Misdiagnosis of fish allergies has compounded this problem and the number of patients subjected to histamine poisoning that are transported to the emergency ward because of anaphylactic shock-like symptoms should not be underestimated. We investigated incidents of histamine food poisoning in Japan from 1998 to 2020, and found that there were a mean 9.7 incidents/year and 195.3 cases/year. Facility-wise occurrence of the incidents per year was the highest in restaurants followed by lunch facilities, and these together accounted for approximately 70% of the incidents. Facility-wise total number of cases was the highest in lunch facilities followed by restaurants, and these together accounted for 80% of the cases. Fish associated with histamine poisoning were mainly tuna, marlin, and mackerel. Based on the current literature review, 23 genera of histamine-producing bacteria were isolated from fish purchased in Japan. The most frequently reported bacteria were Morganella morganii and Photobacterium damselae. Psychrophilic bacteria such as Morganella psychrotolerans and Photobacterium phosphoreum were also isolated. To prevent histamine poisoning, freezing or fast handling of fish and the products during processing and consuming is important because only refrigeration of fish is enough.

Identification of histamine in fish and fish products in Poland during 2014–2018

Introduction

Histamine is one of the most important and toxic biogenic amines which may be present in food and may cause food poisoning in humans when contained at a high level. It is produced during bacterial decarboxylation of histidine in fish muscles. The aim of the study was to investigate the presence of histamine in fish and fish products available in Poland during 2014–2018.

Material and Methods

A total of 421 samples of raw (248), smoked (107), canned (50), and marinated fish (16) were analysed by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection.

Results

Histamine was detected in 14.1% samples of raw fish, 29% of smoked fish, 22% of canned fish and 93.8% of marinated fish in concentrations ranging from 3.4 to 156.4 mg/kg. Content of this amine above 100 mg/kg was found in four samples: raw Atlantic salmon, smoked European sprat and two samples of marinated Atlantic herring.

Conclusion

The study showed that fish and fish products on the Polish market generally meet the food safety criteria for histamine and are safe for consumers.

Histamine contents in raw long-ripening meat products commercially available in Poland

Introduction

Many consumers seek long-ripening meat products. The availability of these highly distinctive cured pork varieties is continuously expanding and their safety should be subject to monitoring. One of potentially harmful substances in these products is histamine. The presence of this toxic amine is reported in many countries, even in high concentrations. However, the EU has not regulated the permissible histamine content in meat, in a situation at odds with that of regulated fish and fish products. This study established the usefulness of biogenic amine testing in long-ripening pork and furnished indicative concentrations potential useful as a background for future research in preparation for EU regulative intervention.

Material and Methods

A total of 97 samples of long-ripening meat products untreated by heat were bought from various shops in the Puławy and Lublin regions of Poland and tested for the presence of histamine using high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array.

Results

The histamine concentration ranged from below limit of detection to 346.64 mg/kg, where 3.47 mg/kg was the lowest in a positive sample. Histamine was detected in 48 samples (49.5%). The maximum amount of histamine was identified in dry ham and the minimum in traditional salami.

Conclusion

The results of this study suggest that testing meat products for biogenic amines should be a very good indicator of the food safety of long-ripening meats. In half of the tested products, levels of biogenic amines potentially toxic to consumers were determined.

Mimics of Allergy and Angioedema: Scombroid, Mast Cell Activation Disorders, and Hereditary Alpha Tryptasemia

Scombroid poisoning, systemic mastocytosis, and hereditary alpha tryptasemia all present with episodes that resemble allergic reactions. Knowledge regarding systemic mastocytosis and hereditary alpha tryptasemia is quickly evolving. Epidemiology, pathophysiology, and strategies to identify and diagnose are discussed. Evidence-based management in the emergency setting and beyond is also explored and summarized. Key differences are described between these events and allergic reactions.

The Sea Was Angry That Day My Friends: An Inland Case of Acute Scombroid Poisoning With a Twist

Scombroid poisoning is a common form of food poisoning related to fresh, canned, or smoked fish ingestion with high histamine content as a result of improper handling and storage. The incubation period for this type of fish poisoning is relatively short (ranges from a few minutes to hours). We present a case of a 53-year-old male who developed severe symptoms of scombroid poisoning minutes after ingesting an ahi tuna salad in a local restaurant.

Histamine and Scombrotoxins

Histamine intoxications result when histamine-metabolizing enzymes are compromised or overwhelmed by dietary histamine in the human body. This can occur either due to metabolic enzyme deficiencies, such as in histamine intolerance to wines, aged cheese and other foods or from high concentrations of histamine following ingestion of decomposed fish. The presence of histamine in decomposed fish and fish products results from bacterial decarboxylation of free L-histidine following product mishandling. Consequently, histamine intoxications from mishandled fish, commonly referred to as scombrotoxin fish poisoning (SFP) or scombroid poisoning, require high levels of free L-histidine only found in certain species of pelagic fish. Differential diagnosis is required of clinicians since dietary histamine intoxications produce the same symptoms typical of release of endogenous histamine due to IgE -mediated seafood allergies or anisakiasis. Although high levels of dietary histamine are responsible for SFP, histamine has important physiological functions and tends to exert toxic effects only at doses beyond the physiological range. Endogenous histamine is essential to local immune responses, regulation of gastric acid secretion in the gut, and neurotransmission in the central nervous system. Scombrotoxins, postulated to explain histamine's augmented toxicity in scombrotoxic fish, are a milieu of histamine and other bioactives. Since time-and-temperature abuse is required to produce high levels of histamine in fish, management consists of ensuring proper handling by identifying hazards and critical control points (HACCP) and maintaining a "cold chain" from catch to consumption. Reference methods for detecting histamine have received increased attention and the European Commission has validated a popular precolumn dansylation-based HPLC method through inter-laboratory collaboration and studied method equivalence with the AOAC fluorescence method 977.13 recognized by Codex Alimentarius. Much progress has been made during the last decade in the development and validation of rapid screening methods for detecting histamine in food and especially in fish products. These include many innovative sensors and several validated commercial test kits, many of them based on a recombinant form of the enzyme histamine dehydrogenase (HD).

Solid-Contact Ion-Selective Electrodes for Histamine Determination

Solid-contact ion-selective electrodes for histamine (HA) determination were fabricated and studied. Gold wire (0.5 mm diameter) was coated with poly(3,4-ethlenedioxythiophene) doped with poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) as a solid conductive layer. The polyvinyl chloride matrix embedded with 5,10,15,20-tetraphenyl(porphyrinato)iron(iii) chloride as an ionophore, 2-nitrophenyloctyl ether as a plasticizer and potassium tetrakis(p-chlorophenyl) borate as an ion exchanger was used to cover the PEDOT:PSS layer as a selective membrane. The characteristics of the HA electrodes were also investigated. The detection limit of 8.58 × 10-6 M, the fast response time of less than 5 s, the good reproducibility, the long-term stability and the selectivity in the presence of common interferences in biological fluids were satisfactory. The electrode also performed stably in the pH range of 7-8 and the temperature range of 35-41 °C. Additionally, the recovery rate of 99.7% in artificial cerebrospinal fluid showed the potential for the electrode to be used in biological applications.

Acute coronary syndrome from scombroid poisoning: a narrative review of case reports

BACKGROUND

Scombroid syndrome constitutes a toxic illness caused by ingestion of improperly stored fish, usually contaminated by Gram-negative bacteria producing histamine and other toxins. Scombroid currently accounts for approximately 5% of food toxicities in the United States. Though cardiovascular complications are infrequent, some patients experienced acute coronary syndrome (ACS) on admission to hospital. This article focuses on the main pathophysiology, clinical features, therapy, and outcomes in scombroid-related ACS.

METHODS

Starting from the consolidated knowledge on histaminergic syndromes, we performed a literature search for studies describing patient series and single cases presenting at emergency department with scombroid toxicity complicated by myocardial ischemia.

RESULTS

After a pathophysiological overview on histaminergic syndromes, we carefully analyzed a dataset of 19 patients from 13 studies, published from 1997 to December 2020. Electrocardiographic, echocardiographic, angiographic features, clinical course, hospital complications, and therapeutic approach were described. Shared and differential aspects of scombroid ACS with typical atherosclerotic ischemia, Kounis, MINOCA and Takotsubo syndromes are also discussed.

CONCLUSION

An ischemic heart scombroid syndrome may occur in some patients after the eating of improperly stored fish food. Currently available studies indicate this as a benign condition, except for patients with history of coronary artery disease, previous ACS, or anaphylaxis. Of clinical concern, there is a potential of hemodynamic failure in the acute stage, even in apparently healthy people.

Influence of Sample Matrix on Determination of Histamine in Fish by Surface Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy Coupled with Chemometric Modelling

Histamine fish poisoning is a foodborne illness caused by the consumption of fish products with high histamine content. Although intoxication mechanisms and control strategies are well known, it remains by far the most common cause of seafood-related health problems. Since conventional methods for histamine testing are difficult to implement in high-throughput quality control laboratories, simple and rapid methods for histamine testing are needed to ensure the safety of seafood products in global trade. In this work, the previously developed SERS method for the determination of histamine was tested to determine the influence of matrix effect on the performance of the method and to investigate the ability of different chemometric tools to overcome matrix effect issues. Experiments were performed on bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) and bonito (Sarda sarda) samples exposed to varying levels of microbial activity. Spectral analysis confirmed the significant effect of sample matrix, related to different fish species, as well as the extent of microbial activity on the predictive ability of PLSR models with R² of best model ranging from 0.722–0.945. Models obtained by ANN processing of factors derived by PCA from the raw spectra of the samples showed excellent prediction of histamine, regardless of fish species and extent of microbial activity (R² of validation > 0.99).