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Burns JM, Kamykowski MG, Moreno JA, Jirjis MB. Prolonged Electro-muscular Incapacitation in a Porcine Model Causes Spinal Injury. J Forensic Sci 2019; 65:144-153. [PMID: 31503337 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.14177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2019] [Revised: 05/09/2019] [Accepted: 08/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Conducted electrical weapons are designed to cause temporary electro-muscular incapacitation (EMI) without significant injury. The objective of this study was to assess the risk and cause of spinal injury due to exposure to a benchtop EMI device. Porcine subjects were exposed to 19 and 40 Hz electrical stimuli for a prolonged duration of 30 sec. X-ray imaging, necropsy, and accelerometry found that lumbosacral spinal fractures occurred in at least 89% of all subjects, regardless of the stimulus group, and were likely caused by musculoskeletal fatigue-related stress in the lumbosacral spine. Spinal fractures occurred in the porcine model at an unusually high rate compared to human. This may be due to both the prolonged duration of electrical stimulation and significant musculoskeletal differences between humans and pigs, which suggests that the porcine model is not a good model of EMI-induced spinal fracture in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennie M Burns
- General Dynamics Information Technology, JBSA Fort Sam Houston, TX, 78234
| | | | - Justin A Moreno
- General Dynamics Information Technology, JBSA Fort Sam Houston, TX, 78234
| | - Michael B Jirjis
- Bioeffects Division, Airman Systems Directorate, 711th Human Performance Wing, U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory, JBSA Fort Sam Houston, TX, 78234
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Jauchem JR, Burns JM, Voorhees WB, Jirjis MB. Increased Hematocrit Due to Electrical-Waveform Exposures in Splenectomized Sus scrofa. J Forensic Sci 2018; 64:1196-1202. [PMID: 30508303 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.13969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2018] [Revised: 08/31/2018] [Accepted: 11/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In laboratory studies of the pig Sus scrofa, hematocrit has consistently increased after conducted-electrical-weapon (CEW) exposures, possibly due to contraction of the spleen. Splenectomized animals and intact sham control animals were exposed, each for 30 sec, to a benchtop-produced electrical waveform of net charge levels similar to those of some CEWs. Changes in the blood were compared statistically. Hematocrit increased significantly in both splenectomized and sham animals. There were no significant main-effect differences between values of hematocrit from the two groups. There were, however, significant interactive effects of time and splenectomy for hematocrit, red blood cell count, and hemoglobin. After peak values were reached for these variables, values returned toward baseline levels more slowly in splenectomized animals. This may have been due to the lack of a spleen to sequester red blood cells (thereby resulting in more cells remaining in the general circulation), unlike sham animals with intact spleens.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Jauchem
- Bioeffects Division, Airman Systems Directorate, 711th Human Performance Wing, U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory, Joint Base San Antonio, Fort Sam Houston, Texas, 78234
| | - Jennie M Burns
- General Dynamics Information Technology, Joint Base San Antonio, Fort Sam Houston, Texas, 78234
| | - William B Voorhees
- Bioeffects Division, Airman Systems Directorate, 711th Human Performance Wing, U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory, Joint Base San Antonio, Fort Sam Houston, Texas, 78234
| | - Michael B Jirjis
- Bioeffects Division, Airman Systems Directorate, 711th Human Performance Wing, U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory, Joint Base San Antonio, Fort Sam Houston, Texas, 78234
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Cattaneo C, Maderna E, Rendinelli A, Gibelli D. Animal experimentation in forensic sciences: How far have we come? Forensic Sci Int 2015. [PMID: 26216717 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2015.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
In the third millennium where ethical, ethological and cultural evolution seem to be leading more and more towards an inter-species society, the issue of animal experimentation is a moral dilemma. Speaking from a self-interested human perspective, avoiding all animal testing where human disease and therapy are concerned may be very difficult or even impossible; such testing may not be so easily justifiable when suffering-or killing-of non human animals is inflicted for forensic research. In order to verify how forensic scientists are evolving in this ethical issue, we undertook a systematic review of the current literature. We investigated the frequency of animal experimentation in forensic studies in the past 15 years and trends in publication in the main forensic science journals. Types of species, lesions inflicted, manner of sedation or anesthesia and euthanasia were examined in a total of 404 articles reviewed, among which 279 (69.1%) concerned studies involving animals sacrificed exclusively for the sake of the experiment. Killing still frequently includes painful methods such as blunt trauma, electrocution, mechanical asphyxia, hypothermia, and even exsanguination; of all these animals, apparently only 60.8% were anesthetized. The most recent call for a severe reduction if not a total halt to the use of animals in forensic sciences was made by Bernard Knight in 1992. In fact the principle of reduction and replacement, frequently respected in clinical research, must be considered the basis for forensic science research needing animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Cattaneo
- LABANOF, Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia Forense Sezione di Medicina Legale Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche per la Salute Università degli Studi di Milano, V. Mangiagalli 37, 20133 Milan, Italy.
| | - E Maderna
- LABANOF, Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia Forense Sezione di Medicina Legale Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche per la Salute Università degli Studi di Milano, V. Mangiagalli 37, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - A Rendinelli
- LABANOF, Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia Forense Sezione di Medicina Legale Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche per la Salute Università degli Studi di Milano, V. Mangiagalli 37, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - D Gibelli
- LABANOF, Laboratorio di Antropologia e Odontologia Forense Sezione di Medicina Legale Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche per la Salute Università degli Studi di Milano, V. Mangiagalli 37, 20133 Milan, Italy
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Jauchem JR. Exposures to conducted electrical weapons (including TASER® devices): how many and for how long are acceptable? J Forensic Sci 2014; 60 Suppl 1:S116-29. [PMID: 25443856 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.12672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2013] [Revised: 01/28/2014] [Accepted: 02/03/2014] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
TASER(®) conducted electrical weapons (CEWs) are an important law-enforcement tool. The purposes of this study are a) to review recent literature regarding potential pathophysiological responses to applications of CEWs, and other related issues and b) to evaluate whether enough data exist to determine the acceptability of longer-duration (or repeated) exposures. This is a narrative review, using a multidisciplinary approach of analyzing reports from physiological, legal-medical, and police-strategy literature sources. In general, short-duration exposures to CEWs result in limited effects. Longer-duration or repeated exposures may be utilized with caution, although there are currently not enough data to determine the acceptability of all types of exposures. Data examined in the literature have inherent limitations. Appropriateness of specific types of CEW usage may be determined by individual police agencies, applying risk/benefit analyses unique to each organization. While more research is recommended, initial concepts of potential future long-duration or repeated CEW applications are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Jauchem
- Bio-effects Division, Human Effectiveness Directorate, 711th Human Performance Wing, U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory, Fort Sam Houston, TX, 78234
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Kunz SN, Aronshtam J, Tränkler HR, Kraus S, Graw M, Peschel O. Cardiac Changes Due to Electronic Control Devices? A Computer-Based Analysis of Electrical Effects at the Human Heart Caused by an ECD Pulse Applied to the Body's Exterior. J Forensic Sci 2014; 59:659-64. [DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.12383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2012] [Revised: 01/02/2013] [Accepted: 01/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian N. Kunz
- IFFB Gerichtsmedizin und Forensische Neuropsychiatrie; Paris-Lodron Universität Salzburg; Ignaz-Harrer-Str. 79, 5020 Salzburg Austria
| | - Julia Aronshtam
- Institut für Rechtsmedizin; Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich; Nussbaumstr. 26, 80336 Munich Germany
| | - Hans-Rolf Tränkler
- University of Armed Forces Munich; Werneer-Heisenberg-Weg 39, 85579 Neubiberg Munich Germany
| | - Sybille Kraus
- Institut für Rechtsmedizin; Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich; Nussbaumstr. 26, 80336 Munich Germany
| | - Matthias Graw
- Institut für Rechtsmedizin; Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich; Nussbaumstr. 26, 80336 Munich Germany
| | - Oliver Peschel
- Institut für Rechtsmedizin; Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich; Nussbaumstr. 26, 80336 Munich Germany
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Comeaux JA, Jauchem JR, Cox DD, Crane CC, D'Andrea JA. 40-Hz square-wave stimulation requires less energy to produce muscle contraction: compared with the TASER® X26 conducted energy weapon. J Forensic Sci 2013; 58:1026-31. [PMID: 23682682 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.12122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2011] [Revised: 02/09/2012] [Accepted: 04/29/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Conducted energy weapons (CEWs) (including the Advanced TASER(®) X26 model produced by TASER International, Inc.) incapacitate individuals by causing muscle contractions. In this study using anesthetized swine, the potential incapacitating effect of primarily monophasic, 19-Hz voltage imposed by the commercial CEW was compared with the effect of voltages imposed by a laboratory device that created 40-Hz square waves. Forces of muscle contraction were measured with the use of strain gauges. Stimulation with 40-Hz square waves required less pulse energy than stimulation with the commercial CEW to produce similar muscle contraction. The square-pulse stimulation, at the higher repetition rate, caused a more complete tetanus at a lower energy. Use of such a simple shape of waveform may be used to make future nonlethal weapon devices more efficient.
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Affiliation(s)
- James A Comeaux
- General Dynamics Information Technology, 3650 Chambers Pass, Fort Sam Houston, TX, USA
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Blood lactate concentration after exposure to conducted energy weapons (including TASER® devices): is it clinically relevant? Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2013; 9:386-94. [PMID: 23605975 DOI: 10.1007/s12024-013-9436-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/15/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
In previous studies, blood lactate concentration (BLac) consistently increased in anesthetized animals and in human subjects after exposures to TASER(®) conducted energy weapons (CEWs). Some have suggested the increased BLac would have detrimental consequences. In the current review, the following are evaluated: (a) the nature of muscle contractions due to CEWs, (b) general aspects of increased BLac, (c) previous studies of conventional neuromuscular electrical stimulation and CEW exposures, and (d) BLac in disease states. On the basis of these analyses, one can conclude that BLac, per se (independent of acidemia), would not be clinically relevant immediately after short-duration CEW applications, due to the short time course of any increase.
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Jauchem JR, Bernhard JA, Cerna CZ, Lim TY, Seaman RL, Tarango M. Effects of a TASER® conducted energy weapon on the circulating red-blood-cell population and other factors in Sus scrofa. Forensic Sci Med Pathol 2013; 9:308-20. [PMID: 23543463 DOI: 10.1007/s12024-013-9423-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/13/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
In previous studies hematocrit has been consistently increased in an anesthetized animal model after exposures to TASER(®) conducted energy weapons (CEWs). In the present study we analyzed changes in blood cell counts and red blood cell membrane proteins following two 30-s applications of a TASER C2 device (which is designed for civilian use). Hematocrit increased significantly from 33.2 ± 2.4 (mean ± SD) to 42.8 ± 4.6 % immediately after CEW exposure of eleven pigs (Sus scrofa). Red blood cell count increased significantly from 6.10 ± 0.55 × 10(12)/L to 7.45 ± 0.94 × 10(12)/L, and mean corpuscular volume increased significantly from 54.5 ± 2.4 fl to 57.8 ± 2.6 fl. Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration decreased significantly from 20.5 ± 0.7 to 18.5 ± 0.6 mM. Thirty protein spots (from two-dimensional sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, selected for detailed comparison) exhibited greater densities 30-min post-exposure compared with pre-exposure values. A greater number of echinocytes were observed following CEW exposure. On the basis of these results it appears that, during the strong muscle contractions produced by TASER CEWs, a specific population of red blood cells (RBCs) may be released from the spleen or other reservoirs within the body. The total time of CEW exposure in the present study was relatively long compared with exposures in common law-enforcement scenarios. Despite statistically significant changes in red blood cell counts (and other measures directly related to RBCs), the alterations were short-lived. The transient nature of the changes would be likely to counteract any potentially detrimental effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Jauchem
- Bio-Effects Division, Human Effectiveness Directorate, 711th Human Performance Wing, U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory, Fort Sam Houston, TX 78234, USA.
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10
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Kunz S. Author's Response. J Forensic Sci 2012. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2012.02226.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Kunz
- IFFB Gerichtsmedizin und Forensische Neuropsychiatrie; Paris-Lodron Universität Salzburg-Linz; Ignaz-Harrer-Str. 79 5020 Salzburg Austria
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Kunz SN, Grove N, Fischer F. Acute pathophysiological influences of conducted electrical weapons in humans: A review of current literature. Forensic Sci Int 2012; 221:1-4. [PMID: 22421323 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2011] [Revised: 01/06/2012] [Accepted: 02/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Conducted electrical weapons (CEWs) deliver short high-voltage, low current energy pulses to temporarily paralyze a person by causing muscular contraction. The narrative of this article is a methodical analysis on acute pathophysiological changes within the central nervous system, cardiovascular, neuroendocrine, sympatho-adrenergic and muskuloskeletal system which can occur after application of conducted electrical weapons on human subjects. The results are based on wide-ranging literature analysis and source studies. The majority of the recent scientific publications on humans classify the health risks of an appropriate use of the CEWs device as minor. However, there still is an uncertainty about possible side-effects of these devices. Therefore medical supervision with human application is advised.
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Affiliation(s)
- S N Kunz
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany.
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12
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Electronic Control Device Exposure: A Review of Morbidity and Mortality. Ann Emerg Med 2011; 58:178-88. [DOI: 10.1016/j.annemergmed.2011.01.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2010] [Revised: 12/20/2010] [Accepted: 01/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Pathophysiologic changes due to TASER® devices versus excited delirium: Potential relevance to deaths-in-custody? J Forensic Leg Med 2011; 18:145-53. [PMID: 21550562 DOI: 10.1016/j.jflm.2011.01.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2010] [Revised: 01/13/2011] [Accepted: 01/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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The respiratory, metabolic, and neuroendocrine effects of a new generation electronic control device. Forensic Sci Int 2011; 207:55-60. [PMID: 20884143 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2010.08.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2010] [Accepted: 08/31/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Jauchem JR. Increased hematocrit after applications of conducted energy weapons (including TASER(®) devices) to Sus scrofa. J Forensic Sci 2011; 56 Suppl 1:S229-33. [PMID: 21198623 DOI: 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2010.01629.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Conducted energy weapons (CEWs) are used by law enforcement personnel to incapacitate individuals quickly and effectively, without intending to cause lethality. CEWs have been deployed for relatively long or repeated exposures in some cases. In laboratory animal models, central venous hematocrit has increased significantly after CEW exposure. Even limited applications (e.g., three 5-sec applications) resulted in statistically significant increases in hematocrit. Preexposure hematocrit was significantly higher in nonsurvivors versus survivors after more extreme CEW applications. The purpose of this technical note is to address specific questions that may be generated when examining these results. Comparisons among results of CEW applications, other electrical muscle stimulation, and exercise/voluntary muscle contraction are included. The anesthetized swine appears to be an acceptable animal model for studying changes in hematocrit and associated red blood cell changes. Potential detrimental effects of increased hematocrit, and considerations during law enforcement use, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Jauchem
- Directed Energy Bio-Effects Division, U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory, San Antonio, TX 78235, USA.
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Ho JD, Dawes DM, Reardon RF, Strote SR, Kunz SN, Nelson RS, Lundin EJ, Orozco BS, Miner JR. Human cardiovascular effects of a new generation conducted electrical weapon. Forensic Sci Int 2011; 204:50-7. [PMID: 20537475 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2010.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2010] [Revised: 04/26/2010] [Accepted: 05/03/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Comeaux JA, Jauchem JR, Cox DD, Crane CC, D'Andrea JA. Muscle contraction during electro-muscular incapacitation: A comparison between square-wave pulses and the TASER(®) X26 Electronic control device. J Forensic Sci 2010; 56 Suppl 1:S95-100. [PMID: 20950313 DOI: 10.1111/j.1556-4029.2010.01580.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Electronic control devices (including the Advanced TASER(®) X26 model produced by TASER International) incapacitate individuals by causing muscle contractions. To provide information relevant to development of future potential devices, effects of monophasic square waves with different parameters were compared with those of the X26 electronic control device, using two animal models (frogs and swine). Pulse power, electrical pulse charge, pulse duration, and pulse repetition frequency affected muscle contraction. There was no difference in the charge required, between the square waveform and the X26 waveform, to cause approximately the same muscle-contraction response (in terms of the strength-duration curve). Thus, on the basis of these initial studies, the detailed shape of a waveform may not be important in terms of generating electro-muscular incapacitation. More detailed studies, however, may be required to thoroughly test all potential waveforms to be considered for future use in ECDs.
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Leitgeb N, Niedermayr F, Neubauer R, Loos G. Numerically simulated cardiac exposure to electric current densities induced by TASER X-26 pulses in adult men. Phys Med Biol 2010; 55:6187-95. [PMID: 20876969 DOI: 10.1088/0031-9155/55/20/010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
There is still an ongoing debate whether or not electronic stun devices (ESDs) induce cardiac fibrillation. To assess the ventricular fibrillation risk of law enforcing electronic control devices, quantitative estimates of cardiac electric current densities induced by delivered electric pulses are essential. Numerical simulations were performed with the finite integration technique and the anatomical model of a standardized European man (NORMAN) segmented into 2 mm voxels and 35 different tissues. The load-dependent delivery of TASER X-26 pulses has been taken into account. Cardiac exposure to electric current densities of vertically and horizontally aligned dart electrodes was quantified and different hit scenarios compared. Since fibrillation thresholds critically depend on exposed volume, the provided quantitative data are essential for risk assessment. The maximum cardiac rms current densities amounted to 7730 A m(-2). Such high current densities and exposed cardiac volumes do not exclude ventricular fibrillation.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Leitgeb
- Institute of Clinical Engineering with European Notified Body of Medical Devices, Graz University of Technology, Inffeldgasse 18, A-8010 Graz, Austria.
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Biria M, Bommana S, Kroll M, Panescu D, Lakkireddy D. Multi-organ effects of Conducted Electrical Weapons (CEW) -- a review. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. IEEE ENGINEERING IN MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY SOCIETY. ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE 2010; 2010:1266-1270. [PMID: 21095915 DOI: 10.1109/iembs.2010.5626415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Since the introduction of the Conducted Electrical Weapons (CEW) several studies have been conducted and multiple reports have been published on safety of these devices from a medical point of view. Use of these devices in different situations and reported deaths attracts media attention and causes general anxiety around these devices. These devices have several limitations- such as rate of fire or maximum effective range in comparison to fire arms. Here we wish to review medical publications regarding the safety of these devices based on different systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mazda Biria
- University of Kansas Hospital, Kansas City, Kansas, USA
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