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Kipcak A, Sezan S, Karpat O, Kaya E, Baylan S, Sariyar E, Yandim C, Karagonlar ZF. Suppression of CTC1 inhibits hepatocellular carcinoma cell growth and enhances RHPS4 cytotoxicity. Mol Biol Rep 2024; 51:799. [PMID: 39001931 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-024-09756-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/15/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although DNA repair mechanisms function to maintain genomic integrity, in cancer cells these mechanisms may negatively affect treatment efficiency. The strategy of targeting cancer cells via inhibiting DNA damage repair has been successfully used in breast and ovarian cancer using PARP inhibitors. Unfortunately, such strategies have not yet yielded results in liver cancer. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), the most common type of liver cancer, is a treatment-resistant malignancy. Despite the development of guided therapies, treatment regimens for advanced HCC patients still fall short of the current need and significant problems such as cancer relapse with resistance still exist. In this paper, we targeted telomeric replication protein CTC1, which is responsible for telomere maintenance. METHODS CTC expression was analyzed using tumor and matched-tissue RNA-sequencing data from TCGA and GTEx. In HCC cell lines, q-RT-PCR and Western blotting were used to detect CTC1 expression. The knock-down of CTC1 was achieved using lentiviral plasmids. The effects of CTC1 silencing on HCC cells were analyzed by flow cytometry, MTT, spheroid and colony formation assays. RESULTS CTC1 is significantly downregulated in HCC tumor samples. However, CTC1 protein levels were higher in sorafenib-resistant cell lines compared to the parental groups. CTC1 inhibition reduced cell proliferation in sorafenib-resistant HCC cell lines and diminished their spheroid and colony forming capacities. Moreover, these cells were more sensitive to single and combined drug treatment with G4 stabilizer RHPS4 and sorafenib. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that targeting CTC1 might be a viable option for combinational therapies designed for sorafenib resistant HCC patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arda Kipcak
- Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, Izmir University of Economics, Sakarya Cad, İzmir, Turkey
- Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, USA
| | - Sila Sezan
- Division of Bioengineering, Graduate School, İzmir University of Economics, Sakarya Cad, İzmir, Turkey
| | - Ozum Karpat
- Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, Izmir University of Economics, Sakarya Cad, İzmir, Turkey
| | - Ezgi Kaya
- Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, Izmir University of Economics, Sakarya Cad, İzmir, Turkey
| | - Sude Baylan
- Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, Izmir University of Economics, Sakarya Cad, İzmir, Turkey
| | - Ece Sariyar
- Division of Bioengineering, Graduate School, İzmir University of Economics, Sakarya Cad, İzmir, Turkey
- Izmir International Biomedicine and Genome Institute (IBG-Izmir), Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Cihangir Yandim
- Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, Izmir University of Economics, Sakarya Cad, İzmir, Turkey
| | - Zeynep Firtina Karagonlar
- Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, Izmir University of Economics, Sakarya Cad, İzmir, Turkey.
- Division of Bioengineering, Graduate School, İzmir University of Economics, Sakarya Cad, İzmir, Turkey.
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Min K, Karuppannan SK, Tae G. The impact of matrix stiffness on hepatic cell function, liver fibrosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma-Based on quantitative data. BIOPHYSICS REVIEWS 2024; 5:021306. [PMID: 38846007 PMCID: PMC11151446 DOI: 10.1063/5.0197875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024]
Abstract
Over the past few decades, extensive research has explored the development of supportive scaffold materials for in vitro hepatic cell culture, to effectively mimic in vivo microenvironments. It is crucial for hepatic disease modeling, drug screening, and therapeutic evaluations, considering the ethical concerns and practical challenges associated with in vivo experiments. This review offers a comprehensive perspective on hepatic cell culture using bioscaffolds by encompassing all stages of hepatic diseases-from a healthy liver to fibrosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)-with a specific focus on matrix stiffness. This review begins by providing physiological and functional overviews of the liver. Subsequently, it explores hepatic cellular behaviors dependent on matrix stiffness from previous reports. For hepatic cell activities, softer matrices showed significant advantages over stiffer ones in terms of cell proliferation, migration, and hepatic functions. Conversely, stiffer matrices induced myofibroblastic activation of hepatic stellate cells, contributing to the further progression of fibrosis. Elevated matrix stiffness also correlates with HCC by increasing proliferation, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, metastasis, and drug resistance of HCC cells. In addition, we provide quantitative information on available data to offer valuable perspectives for refining the preparation and development of matrices for hepatic tissue engineering. We also suggest directions for further research on this topic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kiyoon Min
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Sathish Kumar Karuppannan
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea
| | - Giyoong Tae
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju 61005, Republic of Korea
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Uyulgan S, Köse SN, Kıpçak A, Başkan Y, Dağlar G, Karagonlar ZF, Yandım C. Thyroid hormone T3 augments the cytotoxicity of sorafenib in Huh7 hepatocellular carcinoma cells by suppressing AKT expression. J Cancer Res Ther 2024; 20:755-762. [PMID: 39023579 DOI: 10.4103/jcrt.jcrt_2106_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2022] [Accepted: 10/19/2022] [Indexed: 07/20/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a primary cancer that poorly responds to treatment. Molecular cancer studies led to the development of kinase inhibitors, among which sorafenib stands out as a multi-kinase inhibitor approved by FDA for first line use in HCC patients. However, the efficiency of sorafenib was shown to be counteracted by numerous subcellular pathways involving the effector kinase AKT, causing resistance and limiting its survival benefit. On the way of breaking such resistance mechanisms and increase the efficiency of sorafenib, deeper understanding of hepatocellular physiology is essential. Thyroid hormones were shown to be metabolized in liver and inevitably affect the molecular behaviour of hepatocytes. Interestingly, thyroid hormone T3 was also demonstrated to be potentially influential in liver regeneration and treatment with this hormone reportedly led to a decrease in HCC tumor growths. In this study, we aimed to uncover the impact of T3 hormone on the cytotoxic response to sorafenib in HCC in vitro. MATERIALS AND METHODS We pre-treated the HCC cell line Huh-7 with T3 prior to sorafenib exposure both in 2D and 3D culture. We checked cell viability with MTT assay in 2D culture and measured the sizes of 3D spheroids with bright-field microscopy followed by a surface analysis with ImageJ. We also performed scratch assay to measure cell migration as well as western blot and qPCR to uncover affected pathways. RESULTS We observed an additive effect to sorafenib's cytotoxicity both in 2D and 3D culture. Cell migration assay also confirmed our finding and pointed out a benefit of T3 hormone in HCC cell migration. Western blot experiments showed that T3 exerts its additive effect by suppressing AKT expression upon sorafenib treatment both at protein and gene expression levels. CONCLUSION Our results open a promising new avenue in increasing sorafenib's cytotoxicity where thyroid hormone T3 is utilized to modulate AKT expression to combat resistance, and warrant further studies in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sude Uyulgan
- İzmir University of Economics, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, 35330, Balçova, İzmir, Turkey
- İzmir Biomedicine and Genome Center (IBG), Dokuz Eylül University Health Campus, 35340, İnciraltı, İzmir, Turkey
- İzmir International Biomedicine and Genome Institute (iBG-İzmir), Dokuz Eylül University, 35340, İnciraltı, İzmir, Turkey
| | - Sıla Naz Köse
- İzmir University of Economics, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, 35330, Balçova, İzmir, Turkey
| | - Arda Kıpçak
- İzmir University of Economics, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, 35330, Balçova, İzmir, Turkey
- Present Adress: Department of Psychology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22903 USA
| | - Yağmur Başkan
- İzmir University of Economics, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, 35330, Balçova, İzmir, Turkey
| | - Gökçe Dağlar
- İzmir University of Economics, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, 35330, Balçova, İzmir, Turkey
| | - Zeynep Fırtına Karagonlar
- İzmir University of Economics, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, 35330, Balçova, İzmir, Turkey
| | - Cihangir Yandım
- İzmir University of Economics, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, 35330, Balçova, İzmir, Turkey
- İzmir Biomedicine and Genome Center (IBG), Dokuz Eylül University Health Campus, 35340, İnciraltı, İzmir, Turkey
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Badekila AK, Pai V, Vijayan V, Kini S. Engineering alginate/carboxymethylcellulose scaffolds to establish liver cancer spheroids: Evaluation of molecular variances between 2D and 3D models. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 254:128058. [PMID: 37956801 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.128058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2023] [Revised: 09/15/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Natural polymeric hydrogels represent an optimal framework for 3D culture development. This study demonstrates a freeze-thaw-based ionic crosslinking technique for fabricating alginate/carboxymethylcellulose scaffold for culturing human hepatocellular carcinoma, Huh-7 cells to generate 3D spheroids. Consolidating morphological and biomechanical characterization of Alg/CMC scaffolds shows the formation of uniform hydrogels with significant crosslinking (ATR-FTIR), multiscale pores (FE-SEM), swelling/water absorbance, softer texture, viscoelasticity (rheology), spreading nature (contact angle), and degradation rate optimal for 3D culture establishment. The influence of cell seeding density and time with spheroid formation reveals a maximal size of 250-300 μm on day 7. Calcein AM and Propidium iodide staining confirm that a culmination of viable and dead cells generates spheroidal heterogeneity. RT-qPCR in 3D culture against RPL-13 and 2D culture controls indicate an upregulation of E-cadherin, N-cadherin, fibronectin, and integrin α9/β6. Further, western blotting and immunofluorescence confirm the collective display of cellular interactions in 3D spheroids. Thus, the expression profile signifies the role of key genes during the assembly and formation of 3D spheroids in 1%Alg/1%CMC scaffolds with a profound epithelial characteristic. In the future, this study will bring a 3D spheroid model in a platter for elucidating epithelial to mesenchymal transition of cells during in vitro disease modeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anjana Kaveri Badekila
- Nitte (Deemed to be University), Department of Bio & Nano Technology, Nitte University Centre for Science Education and Research, Mangalore 575018, Karnataka, India
| | - Vishruta Pai
- Nitte (Deemed to be University), Department of Bio & Nano Technology, Nitte University Centre for Science Education and Research, Mangalore 575018, Karnataka, India
| | - Vijeesh Vijayan
- Nitte (Deemed to be University), Department of Mechanical Engineering, NMAM Institute of Technology (NMAMIT), Nitte 574110, India
| | - Sudarshan Kini
- Nitte (Deemed to be University), Department of Bio & Nano Technology, Nitte University Centre for Science Education and Research, Mangalore 575018, Karnataka, India.
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Badekila AK, Pai V, Vijayan V, Kini S. Engineering alginate/carboxymethylcellulose scaffolds to establish liver cancer spheroids: Evaluation of molecular variances between 2D and 3D models. Int J Biol Macromol 2023:128058. [DOI: https:/doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.128058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2023]
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Tepe U, Aslanbay Guler B, Imamoglu E. Applications and sensory utilizations of magnetic levitation in 3D cell culture for tissue Engineering. Mol Biol Rep 2023; 50:7017-7025. [PMID: 37378748 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-023-08585-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
3D cell culture approaches are cell culture methods that provide good visualization of interactions between cells while preserving the natural growth pattern. In recent years, several studies have managed to implement magnetic levitation technology on 3D cell culture applications by either combining cells with magnetic nanoparticles (positive magnetophoresis) or applying a magnetic field directly to the cells in a high-intensity medium (negative magnetophoresis). The positive magnetophoresis technique consists of integrating magnetic nanoparticles into the cells, while the negative magnetophoresis technique consists of levitating the cells without labelling them with magnetic nanoparticles. Magnetic levitation methods can be used to manipulate 3D culture, provide more complex habitats and custom control, or display density data as a sensor.The present review aims to show the advantages, limitations, and promises of magnetic 3D cell culture, along with its application methods, tools, and capabilities as a density sensor. In this context, the promising magnetic levitation technique on 3D cell cultures could be fully utilized in further studies with precise control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ugur Tepe
- Faculty of Engineering, Department of Bioengineering, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Bahar Aslanbay Guler
- Faculty of Engineering, Department of Bioengineering, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Esra Imamoglu
- Faculty of Engineering, Department of Bioengineering, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey.
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7
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Grieco M, Ursini O, Palamà IE, Gigli G, Moroni L, Cortese B. HYDRHA: Hydrogels of hyaluronic acid. New biomedical approaches in cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and tissue engineering. Mater Today Bio 2022; 17:100453. [PMID: 36254248 PMCID: PMC9568881 DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2022.100453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 10/30/2022]
Abstract
In the last decade, hyaluronic acid (HA) has attracted an ever-growing interest in the biomedical engineering field as a biocompatible, biodegradable, and chemically versatile molecule. In fact, HA is a major component of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and is essential for the maintenance of cellular homeostasis and crosstalk. Innovative experimental strategies in vitro and in vivo using three-dimensional (3D) HA systems have been increasingly reported in studies of diseases, replacement of tissue and organ damage, repairing wounds, and encapsulating stem cells for tissue regeneration. The present work aims to give an overview and comparison of recent work carried out on HA systems showing advantages, limitations, and their complementarity, for a comprehensive characterization of their use. A special attention is paid to the use of HA in three important areas: cancer, diseases of the central nervous system (CNS), and tissue regeneration, discussing the most innovative experimental strategies. Finally, perspectives within and beyond these research fields are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maddalena Grieco
- National Research Council-Nanotechnology Institute (CNR Nanotec), 73100, Lecce, Italy
| | - Ornella Ursini
- National Research Council-Nanotechnology Institute (CNR Nanotec), 00185, Rome, Italy
| | - Ilaria Elena Palamà
- National Research Council-Nanotechnology Institute (CNR Nanotec), 73100, Lecce, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Gigli
- National Research Council-Nanotechnology Institute (CNR Nanotec), 73100, Lecce, Italy,Department of Mathematics and Physics “Ennio De Giorgi” University of Salento, Via Arnesano, 73100, Lecce, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Moroni
- National Research Council-Nanotechnology Institute (CNR Nanotec), 73100, Lecce, Italy,Complex Tissue Regeneration Department, MERLN Institute for Technology-Inspired Regenerative Medicine, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 40, Maastricht, 6229 ER, the Netherlands
| | - Barbara Cortese
- National Research Council-Nanotechnology Institute (CNR Nanotec), 00185, Rome, Italy,Corresponding author.
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Moss SM, Schilp J, Yaakov M, Cook M, Schuschke E, Hanke B, Strobel HA, Hoying JB. Point-of-use, automated fabrication of a 3D human liver model supplemented with human adipose microvessels. SLAS DISCOVERY : ADVANCING LIFE SCIENCES R & D 2022; 27:358-368. [PMID: 35772696 DOI: 10.1016/j.slasd.2022.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Revised: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Advanced in vitro tissue models better reflect healthy and disease tissue conditions in the body. However, complex tissue models are often manufactured using custom solutions and can be challenging to manufacture to scale. Here, we describe the automated fabrication of a cell-dense, thick (≤ 1 cm), human vascularized liver tissue model using a robotic biomanufacturing platform and off-the-shelf components to build, culture, and sample liver tissues hands-free without compromising tissue health or function. Fabrication of the tissue involved 3D bioprinting and incorporation of primary human hepatocytes, primary human non-parenchymal cells, and isolated fragments of intact human microvessels as vascular precursors. No differences were observed in select assessments of the liver tissues fabricated by hand or via automation. Furthermore, constant media exchange, via perfusion, improved urea output and elevated tissue metabolism. Interestingly, inclusion of adipose-derived human microvessels enhanced functional gene expression, including an enhanced response to a drug challenge. Our results describe the fabrication of a thick liver tissue environment useful for a variety of applications including liver disease modeling, infectious agent studies, and cancer investigations. We expect the automated fabrication of the vascularized liver tissue, at the point of use and using off-the-shelf platforms, eases fabrication of the complex model and increases its utility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah M Moss
- Advanced Solutions Life Sciences, Manchester, NH 03101, United States
| | - Jillian Schilp
- Advanced Solutions Life Sciences, Manchester, NH 03101, United States
| | - Maya Yaakov
- Advanced Solutions Life Sciences, Manchester, NH 03101, United States
| | - Madison Cook
- Advanced Solutions Life Sciences, Manchester, NH 03101, United States
| | - Erik Schuschke
- Advanced Solutions Life Sciences, Louisville, KY 40223, United States
| | - Brandon Hanke
- Advanced Solutions Life Sciences, Louisville, KY 40223, United States
| | - Hannah A Strobel
- Advanced Solutions Life Sciences, Manchester, NH 03101, United States
| | - James B Hoying
- Advanced Solutions Life Sciences, Manchester, NH 03101, United States.
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Scagliola A, Miluzio A, Mori G, Ricciardi S, Oliveto S, Manfrini N, Biffo S. Inhibition of eIF6 Activity Reduces Hepatocellular Carcinoma Growth: An In Vivo and In Vitro Study. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23147720. [PMID: 35887068 PMCID: PMC9319760 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23147720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Revised: 07/07/2022] [Accepted: 07/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is characterized by the accumulation of lipids in the liver. Given the high prevalence of NAFLD, its evolution to nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is of global concern. Therapies for managing NASH-driven HCC can benefit from targeting factors that play a continuous role in NAFLD evolution to HCC. Recent work has shown that postprandial liver translation exacerbates lipid accumulation through the activity of a translation factor, eukaryotic initiation factor 6 (eIF6). Here, we test the effect of eIF6 inhibition on the progression of HCC. Mice heterozygous for eIF6 express half the level of eIF6 compared to wt mice and are resistant to the formation of HCC nodules upon exposure to a high fat/high sugar diet combined with liver damage. Histology showed that nodules in eIF6 het mice were smaller with reduced proliferation compared to wt nodules. By using an in vitro model of human HCC, we confirm that eIF6 depletion reduces the growth of HCC spheroids. We also tested three pharmacological inhibitors of eIF6 activity—eIFsixty-1, eIFsixty-4, and eIFsixty-6—and all three reduced eIF6 binding to 60S ribosomes and limited the growth of HCC spheroids. Thus, inhibition of eIF6 activity is feasible and limits HCC formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Scagliola
- National Institute of Molecular Genetics, Fondazione Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi, Via Sforza 35, 20122 Milan, Italy; (A.S.); (A.M.); (G.M.); (S.R.); (S.O.); (N.M.)
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Annarita Miluzio
- National Institute of Molecular Genetics, Fondazione Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi, Via Sforza 35, 20122 Milan, Italy; (A.S.); (A.M.); (G.M.); (S.R.); (S.O.); (N.M.)
| | - Giada Mori
- National Institute of Molecular Genetics, Fondazione Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi, Via Sforza 35, 20122 Milan, Italy; (A.S.); (A.M.); (G.M.); (S.R.); (S.O.); (N.M.)
| | - Sara Ricciardi
- National Institute of Molecular Genetics, Fondazione Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi, Via Sforza 35, 20122 Milan, Italy; (A.S.); (A.M.); (G.M.); (S.R.); (S.O.); (N.M.)
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Stefania Oliveto
- National Institute of Molecular Genetics, Fondazione Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi, Via Sforza 35, 20122 Milan, Italy; (A.S.); (A.M.); (G.M.); (S.R.); (S.O.); (N.M.)
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Nicola Manfrini
- National Institute of Molecular Genetics, Fondazione Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi, Via Sforza 35, 20122 Milan, Italy; (A.S.); (A.M.); (G.M.); (S.R.); (S.O.); (N.M.)
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Stefano Biffo
- National Institute of Molecular Genetics, Fondazione Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi, Via Sforza 35, 20122 Milan, Italy; (A.S.); (A.M.); (G.M.); (S.R.); (S.O.); (N.M.)
- Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy
- Correspondence:
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