Comparative study of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Aa and Cry1Ac delta-endotoxin activation, inactivation and in situ histopathological effect in Ephestia kuehniella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

MiR-2b-3p Downregulated PxTrypsin-9 Expression in the Larval Midgut to Decrease Cry1Ac Susceptibility of the Diamondback Moth, Plutella xylostella (L.)

Crystal (Cry) toxins, produced by Bacillus thuringiensis, are widely used as effective biological pesticides in agricultural production. However, insects always quickly evolve adaptations against Cry toxins within a few generations. In this study, we focused on the Cry1Ac protoxin activated by protease. Our results identified PxTrypsin-9 as a trypsin gene that plays a key role in Cry1Ac virulence in Plutella xylostella larvae. In addition, P. xylostella miR-2b-3p, a member of the micoRNA-2 (miR-2) family, was significantly upregulated by Cry1Ac protoxin and targeted to PxTrypsin-9 downregulated its expression. The mRNA level of PxTrypsin-9, regulated by miR-2b-3p, revealed an increased tolerance of P. xylostella larvae to Cry1Ac at the post-transcriptional level. Considering that miR-2b and trypsin genes are widely distributed in various pest species, our study provides the basis for further investigation of the roles of miRNAs in the regulation of the resistance to Cry1Ac and other insecticides.

Response Mechanisms of Invertebrates to Bacillus thuringiensis and Its Pesticidal Proteins

Extensive use of chemical insecticides adversely affects both environment and human health. One of the most popular biological pest control alternatives is bioinsecticides based on Bacillus thuringiensis This entomopathogenic bacterium produces different protein types which are toxic to several insect, mite, and nematode species. Currently, insecticidal proteins belonging to the Cry and Vip3 groups are widely used to control insect pests both in formulated sprays and in transgenic crops. However, the benefits of B. thuringiensis-based products are threatened by insect resistance evolution. Numerous studies have highlighted that mutations in genes coding for surrogate receptors are responsible for conferring resistance to B. thuringiensis Nevertheless, other mechanisms may also contribute to the reduction of the effectiveness of B. thuringiensis-based products for managing insect pests and even to the acquisition of resistance. Here, we review the relevant literature reporting how invertebrates (mainly insects and Caenorhabditis elegans) respond to exposure to B. thuringiensis as either whole bacteria, spores, and/or its pesticidal proteins.

Influence of Ephestia kuehniella stage larvae on the potency of Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Aa delta-endotoxin

The economically important crop pest Ephestia kuehniella was tested at two stages of larval development for susceptibility to Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Aa toxin. Bioassays showed that toxicity decreased during the development of larvae stage. In fact, Cry1Aa toxins from BNS3-Cry^- (pHT-cry1Aa) showed low toxicity against the first-instar larvae (L1) with a LC₅₀ value of about 421.02μg/g of diet and was not toxic against the fifth-instar (L5), comparing to the BLB1 toxins used as positive control which represent a LC₅₀ value of about 56.96 and 84.21μg/g of diet against L1 and L5 instars larvae, respectively. Effects of Cry1Aa toxins were reflected in histopathological observations by the weak destruction of midgut epithelium, slight hypertrophy of epithelial cells, and minor alteration of brush border membrane (BBM) detected mainly in L1 larvae stage comparing to the more extensive damage caused by BLB1 toxins. Interestingly, in vitro proteolysis of Cry1Aa toxins was found to correlate with the difference of toxicity during larval stage development. In fact, the weak proteinase activity detected inside the L1 midgut has led to the persistence of the Cry1Aa active forms (65 and 58kDa) during prolonged incubations, causing the alterations described previously. Three subfamilies of aminopeptidase (APN) receptors were detected in both larvae instars with different intensities and molecular weights (150kDa and 55kDa for APN1, and 90kDa for APN2 and APN4). Remarkably, binding assay using Cry1Aa toxin seems to have no direct correlation with larval stages toxicity differences, since same putative receptors were detected. Understanding the reasons for the clear differences in the effectiveness of Cry1Aa toxins during larval development stages of E. kuehniella is very important for the design of future improvement insecticidal approaches and for the accomplishment of resistance prevention strategies.

Ephestia kuehniella tolerance to Bacillus thuringiensis Cry1Aa is associated with reduced oligomer formation

The basis of the different susceptibility of Ephestia kuehniella to the Cry1Aa and Cry1Ac δ-endotoxins from Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki BNS3 was studied. Both toxins bound specifically to the BBMV of E. kuehniella. The result of the ligand blot showed that Cry1Ac bound to three putative receptors of about 100, 65 and 80 kDa and Cry1Aa interacted only with a 100 kDa protein. Pronase digestion of the BBMV-bound toxins was used to analyze the toxin insertion. Both toxins inserted into the BBMV as monomers however, a 14 kDa peptide of α4-α5 which correspond to the oligomeric form of this peptide was detected in case of Cry1Ac only. Analysis of the in vitro oligomerisation of these toxins in the presence of the BBMV of E. kuehniella showed reduced oligomer formation in case of Cry1Aa in comparison with Cry1Ac. Taken together, these results strongly suggest that the difference of toxicity between Cry1Aa and Cry1Ac to E. kuehniella is due to a deficient oligomerisation of Cry1Aa.

Toxin stability improvement and toxicity increase against dipteran and lepidopteran larvae of Bacillus thuringiensis crystal protein Cry2Aa

BACKGROUND

Bacillus thuringiensis δ-endotoxins are the most widely used biopesticides for controlling economically important crop pests and disease vectors. Improving their efficacy is of great benefit. Here, an improvement in Cry2Aa δ-endotoxin toxicity was attempted via a cry gene over expression system using P20 from B. thuringiensis israelensis.

RESULTS

The coexpression of Cry2Aa with P20 resulted in a seven fold increase in its production yield in B. thuringiensis. Generated crystals proved to be significantly more toxic (505.207 µg g^-1 , 1.99 mg L^-1 and 1.49 mg L^-1 ) than the P20-lacking control (720.78 µg g^-1 , 705.69 mg L^-1 and 508.51 mg L^-1 ) against Ephestia kuehniella, Aedes aegypti and Culex pipiens larvae respectively. In vitro, processing experiments revealed a P20-mediated protection of Cry2Aa against degradation under larval gut conditions. Thus, P20 could promote the maintenance of a tightly packaged conformation of Cry2Aa toxins in the larval midgut upon correct activation and binding to its membrane receptors.

CONCLUSION

Based on their resistance against excessive proteolysis, Cry2Aa δ-endotoxins, produced in the presence of P20, could be considered as a successful control agent for E. kuehniella and an effective alternative for mosquito control, implying its possible exploitation in pest management programmes. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.

Molecular characterisation of Bacillus thuringiensis strain MEB4 highly toxic to the Mediterranean flour moth Ephestia kuehniella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

BACKGROUND

Cry2 proteins play an essential role in current Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) applications and in the prevention of insect resistance to Cry1A toxins. This paper reports on the screening and characterisation of novel Bt strains harbouring effective cry2A-type genes and higher insecticidal activity to Ephestia kuehniella.

RESULTS

A total of 29 native Bt strains were screened to search for the potent strain against E. kuehniella. The plasmid pattern of the selected strains showed interesting variability. PCR-RFLP analysis of two amplified regions showed high sequence identity within the selected cry2A-type genes. SDS-PAGE and western blot analysis revealed the presence of Cry2Aa toxin only in the MEB4 and BLB240 strains. The activation of Cry2Aa protoxins by larval midgut juice, trypsin or chymotrypsin enzymes revealed significant differences in terms of proteolysis profiles. Interestingly, a 49 kDa band was detected in the proteolysis pattern of BLB240, suggesting the presence of a chymotrypsin cleavage site that might have affected its insecticidal activity. Further, bioassays demonstrated that MEB4 (103.08 ± 36 µg g(-1)) was more active than BLB240 (153.77 ± 45.65 µg g(-1)) against E. kuehniella.

CONCLUSION

Based on its potent insecticidal activity, the MEB4 strain could be considered to be an effective alternative agent for the control of E. kuehniella.

Histopathological and combinatorial effects of the metalloprotease InhA1 and Cry proteins of Bacillus thuringiensis against Spodoptera littoralis

The zinc metalloprotease (InhA) of Bacillus thuringiensis specifically hydrolyzes cecropins and attacins, two antibacterial peptides in the immune hemolymph of insects, leading to a high resistance of the bacteria to the humoral defense system of its host. In the present study, the inhA gene of B. thuringiensis strain BUPM28 was cloned and the nucleotide sequence analysis revealed that it was identical to that of B. thuringiensis 8010. The expressed InhA1 protein in Escherichia coli showed toxicity to neonate Spodoptera littoralis larvae with a LC50 of 2.07±0.72μg/cm(2). Study of the effect of combining Cry proteins with InhA1 showed that one improves the toxicity of the other one against S. littoralis. Investigation of the histopathological effect of this metalloprotease showed an extensive damage of S. littoralis epithelium tissue. These results provide an insight to the use of InhA as supplement to Cry toxins to improve the efficacy of B. thuringiensis formulations and to overcome possible resistance problems.

In vivo and in vitro binding of Vip3Aa to Spodoptera frugiperda midgut and characterization of binding sites by (125)I radiolabeling

Bacillus thuringiensis vegetative insecticidal proteins (Vip3A) have been recently introduced in important crops as a strategy to delay the emerging resistance to the existing Cry toxins. The mode of action of Vip3A proteins has been studied in Spodoptera frugiperda with the aim of characterizing their binding to the insect midgut. Immunofluorescence histological localization of Vip3Aa in the midgut of intoxicated larvae showed that Vip3Aa bound to the brush border membrane along the entire apical surface. The presence of fluorescence in the cytoplasm of epithelial cells seems to suggest internalization of Vip3Aa or a fragment of it. Successful radiolabeling and optimization of the binding protocol for the (125)I-Vip3Aa to S. frugiperda brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV) allowed the determination of binding parameters of Vip3A proteins for the first time. Heterologous competition using Vip3Ad, Vip3Ae, and Vip3Af as competitor proteins showed that they share the same binding site with Vip3Aa. In contrast, when using Cry1Ab and Cry1Ac as competitors, no competitive binding was observed, which makes them appropriate candidates to be used in combination with Vip3A proteins in transgenic crops.

The impact of the Bacillus subtilis SPB1 biosurfactant on the midgut histology of Spodoptera littoralis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and determination of its putative receptor

SPB1 is a Bacillus subtilis strain producing a lipopeptide biosurfactant. The insecticidal activity of this biosurfactant was evaluated against the Egyptian cotton leaf worm (Spodoptera littoralis). It displayed toxicity with an LC(50) of 251 ng/cm(2). The histopathological changes occurred in the larval midgut of S. littoralis treated with B. subtilis SPB1 biosurfactant were vesicle formation in the apical region, cellular vacuolization and destruction of epithelial cells and their boundaries. Ligand-blotting experiments with S. littoralis brush border membrane vesicles showed binding of SPB1 biosurfactant to a protein of 45 kDa corresponding to its putative receptor. The latter differs in molecular size from those recognized by Bacillus thuringiensis Vip3A and Cry1C toxins, commonly known by their activity against S. littoralis. This result wires the application of B. subtilis biosurfactant for effective control of S. littoralis larvae, particularly in the cases where S. littoralis will develop resistance against B. thuringiensis toxins.