Preferential Neurodegeneration in the Dentate Gyrus by Amyloid β1-42-Induced Intracellular Zn2+Dysregulation and Its Defense Strategy

Blockage of metallothionein synthesis via adrenaline β receptor activation invalidates dehydroeffusol-mediated prevention of amyloid β1-42 toxicity

Dehydroeffusol, a major phenanthrene in Juncus effusus, protects neurodegeneration induced by intracellular Zn2+ ferried by extracellular amyloid β1-42 (Aβ1-42). Here we focused on adrenaline β receptor activation and the induction of metallothioneins (MTs), intracellular Zn2+-binding proteins to test the protective mechanism of dehydroeffusol. Isoproterenol, an agonist of adrenergic β receptors elevated the level of MTs in the dentate granule cell layer 1 day after intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection. When Aβ1-42 was injected 1 day after isoproterenol injection, pre-injection of isoproterenol protected Aβ1-42 toxicity via reducing the increase in intracellular Zn2+ after ICV injection of Aβ1-42. On the basis of the effect of increased MTs by isoproterenol, dehydroeffusol (15 mg/kg body weight) was orally administered to mice once a day for 2 days. On day later, dehydroeffusol elevated the level of MTs and prevented Aβ1-42 toxicity via reducing Aβ1-42-mediated increase in intracellular Zn2+. In contrast, propranolol, an antagonist of adrenergic β receptors reduced the level of MTs increased by dehydroeffusol, resulting in invalidating the preventive effect of dehydroeffusol on Aβ1-42 toxicity. The present study indicates that blockage of MT synthesis via adrenaline β receptor activation invalidates dehydroeffusol-mediated prevention of Aβ1-42 toxicity. It is likely that MT synthesis via adrenaline β receptor activation is beneficial to neuroprotection and that oral intake of dehydroeffusol preventively serves against the Aβ1-42 toxicity.

From zinc homeostasis to disease progression: Unveiling the neurodegenerative puzzle

Zinc is a crucial trace element in the human body, playing a role in various physiological processes such as oxidative stress, neurotransmission, protein synthesis, and DNA repair. The zinc transporters (ZnTs) family members are responsible for exporting intracellular zinc, while Zrt- and Irt-like proteins (ZIPs) are involved in importing extracellular zinc. These processes are essential for maintaining cellular zinc homeostasis. Imbalances in zinc metabolism have been linked to the development of neurodegenerative diseases. Disruptions in zinc levels can impact the survival and activity of neurons, thereby contributing to the progression of neurodegenerative diseases through mechanisms like cell apoptosis regulation, protein phase separation, ferroptosis, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation. Therefore, conducting a systematic review of the regulatory network of zinc and investigating the relationship between zinc dysmetabolism and neurodegenerative diseases can enhance our understanding of the pathogenesis of these diseases. Additionally, it may offer new insights and approaches for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

The use of biochemical indexes in hair for clinical studies of psychiatric diseases: What can we learn about mental disease from hair?

Analysis of hair samples provides unique advantages, including non-invasive sampling, sample stability, and the possibility of additional optimization of high sensitivity detection methods. Hair sample analysis is often used in psychiatric disease research to evaluate previous periods of stress encountered by patients. Glucocorticoid analysis is the most frequently tested indicator of stress. Furthermore, the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonad axis and endocannabinoid system also are involved in the occurrence and development of mental disorders. The endocannabinoid and sex hormone levels in patients experiencing mental illness are considerably different from levels observed in healthy individuals. Nevertheless, due to the different methods used to assess the degree of disease and the range of analytical methods involved in clinical research, the trends in changes for these biomarkers are not uniform. The correlations between changes in biomarker concentrations and illness severity also are not clear. The observed alterations suggest these biochemical substances in hair have potential as biomarkers for diagnosis or predictive treatment. However, the variable results obtained thus far could hamper further development of hair samples for clinical assessment in psychiatric disorders. This article summarizes the published reports documenting the changes in the content of relevant substances in hair in individuals experiencing mental illness and the degree of correlation. In the discussion section, we proposed several issues that should be considered in future studies of hair samples obtained from patients with mental disorders to promote the use of hair sample assessment as an aid in diagnosis or predictive treatment.

Metallothionein synthesis increased by Ninjin-yoei-to, a Kampo medicine protects neuronal death and memory loss after exposure to amyloid β1-42

BACKGROUND

It is possible that increased synthesis of metallothioneins (MTs), Zn²⁺-binding proteins is linked with the protective effect of Ninjin-yoei-to (NYT) on Zn²⁺ toxicity ferried by amyloid β_1-42 (Aβ_1-42).

METHODS

Judging from the biological half-life (18-20 h) of MTs, the effective period of newly synthesized MT on capturing Zn²⁺ is estimated to be approximately 2 days. In the present paper, a diet containing 3% NYT was administered to mice for 2 days and then Aβ_1-42 was injected into the lateral ventricle of mice.

RESULTS

MT level in the dentate granule cell layer was elevated 2 days after administration of NYT diet, while the administration reduced intracellular Zn²⁺ level increased 1 h after Aβ_1-42 injection, resulting in rescuing neuronal death in the dentate granule cell layer, which was observed 14 days after Aβ_1-42 injection. Furthermore, Pre-administration of NYT diet rescued object recognition memory loss via affected perforant pathway long-term potentiation after local injection of Aβ_1-42 into the dentate granule cell layer of rats.

CONCLUSION

The present study indicates that pre-administration of NYT diet for 2 days increases synthesis of MTs, which reduces intracellular Zn²⁺ toxicity ferried by extracellular Aβ_1-42, resulting in protecting neuronal death in the dentate gyrus and memory loss after exposure to Aβ_1-42.

[Brain Function and Pathophysiology Focused on Zn2+ Dynamics]

The basal levels of intracellular Zn²⁺ and extracellular Zn²⁺ are in the range of ～100 pM and ～10 nM, respectively, in the brain. Extracellular Zn²⁺ dynamics is involved in both cognitive performance and neurodegeneration. The bidirectional actions are linked with extracellular glutamate and amyloid-β_1-42 (Aβ_1-42). Intracellular Zn²⁺ signaling via extracellular glutamate is required for learning and memory, while intracellular Zn²⁺ dysregulation induces cognitive decline. Furthermore, human Aβ_1-42, a causative peptide in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis captures extracellular Zn²⁺ and readily taken up into hippocampal neurons followed by intracellular Zn²⁺ dysregulation. Aβ_1-42-mediated intracellular Zn²⁺ dysregulation is accelerated with aging, because extracellular Zn²⁺ is age-relatedly increased, resulting in Aβ_1-42-induced cognitive decline and neurodegeneration with aging. On the other hand, metallothioneins, zinc-binding proteins can capture Zn²⁺ released from intracellular Zn-Aβ_1-42 complexes and serve for intracellular Zn²⁺-buffering to maintain intracellular Zn²⁺ homeostasis. This review summarizes Zn²⁺ function and its neurotoxicity in the brain, and also the potential defense strategy via metallothioneins against Aβ_1-42-induced pathogenesis.

Hydrogen sulfide and metal interaction: the pathophysiological implications

Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), previously recognized as a toxic gas, has emerged as an important gaseous signaling molecule along with nitric oxide, carbon monoxide and also hydrogen. H₂S can be endogenously produced in the mammalian body at a very low level for various pathophysiological processes. Notably, H₂S can interact with several essential metals in the body such as iron, copper, nickel, and zinc to carry out specific functions. The interactions of H₂S with metal-binding proteins have been shown to aid in its signal transduction and cellular metabolism. In addition, H₂S is capable of providing a cytoprotective role against metal toxicity. As the research in the field of H₂S signaling in biology and medicine increases, much progresses have been developed for detecting H₂S via interaction with metals. In this review, the interaction of H₂S with metals, specifically in regard to metal-driven metabolism of H₂S, the protection against metal toxicity by H₂S and the detection of H₂S using metals will be discussed. Discovering the interactions of this gasotransmitter with metals is important for determining the mechanisms underlying the cellular functions of H₂S as well as developing novel therapeutic avenues.

TPEN attenuates amyloid-β25-35-induced neuronal damage with changes in the electrophysiological properties of voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels

To understand the role of intracellular zinc ion (Zn²⁺) dysregulation in mediating age-related neurodegenerative changes, particularly neurotoxicity resulting from the generation of excessive neurotoxic amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides, this study aimed to investigate whether N, N, N', N'-tetrakis (2-pyridylmethyl) ethylenediamine (TPEN), a Zn²⁺-specific chelator, could attenuate Aβ_25-35-induced neurotoxicity and the underlying electrophysiological mechanism. We used the 3-(4, 5-dimethyl-thiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide assay to measure the viability of hippocampal neurons and performed single-cell confocal imaging to detect the concentration of Zn²⁺ in these neurons. Furthermore, we used the whole-cell patch-clamp technique to detect the evoked repetitive action potential (APs), the voltage-gated sodium and potassium (K⁺) channels of primary hippocampal neurons. The analysis showed that TPEN attenuated Aβ_25-35-induced neuronal death, reversed the Aβ_25-35-induced increase in intracellular Zn²⁺ concentration and the frequency of APs, inhibited the increase in the maximum current density of voltage-activated sodium channel currents induced by Aβ_25-35, relieved the Aβ_25-35-induced decrease in the peak amplitude of transient outward K⁺ currents (I_A) and outward-delayed rectifier K⁺ currents (I_DR) at different membrane potentials, and suppressed the steady-state activation and inactivation curves of I_A shifted toward the hyperpolarization direction caused by Aβ_25-35. These results suggest that Aβ_25-35-induced neuronal damage correlated with Zn²⁺ dysregulation mediated the electrophysiological changes in the voltage-gated sodium and K⁺ channels. Moreover, Zn²⁺-specific chelator-TPEN attenuated Aβ_25-35-induced neuronal damage by recovering the intracellular Zn²⁺ concentration.

Preventive effect of Ninjin-yoei-to, a Kampo medicine, on amyloid β1-42-induced neurodegeneration via intracellular Zn2+ toxicity in the dentate gyrus

Ninjin-yoei-to (NYT), a Kampo medicine, has ameliorative effects on cognitive dysfunction via enhancing cholinergic neuron activity. To explore an efficacy of NYT administration for prevention and cure of Alzheimer’s disease, here we examined the effect of NYT on amyloid β_1-42 (Aβ_1-42)-induced neurodegeneration in the dentate gyrus. A diet containing 3% NYT was administered to mice for 2 weeks and human Aβ_1-42 was intracerebroventricularly injected. Neurodegeneration in the dentate granule cell layer of the hippocampus, which was determined 2 weeks after the injection, was rescued by administration of the diet for 4 weeks. Aβ staining (uptake) was not modified in the dentate granule cell layer by pre-administration of the diet for 2 weeks, while Aβ_1-42-induced increase in intracellular Zn²⁺ was reduced, suggesting that pre-administration of NYT prior to Aβ injection is effective for reducing Aβ_1-42-induced Zn²⁺ toxicity in the dentate gyrus. As a matter of fact, Aβ_1-42-induced neurodegeneration in the dentate gyrus was rescued by pre-administration of NYT. Interestingly, the level of metallothioneins, intracellular Zn²⁺-binding proteins, which can capture Zn²⁺ from Zn-Aβ_1-42 complexes, was elevated in the dentate granule cell layer by pre-administration of NYT. The present study suggests that pre-administration of NYT prevents Aβ_1-42-mediated neurodegeneration in the dentate gyurs by induced synthesis of metallothioneins, which reduces intracellular Zn²⁺ toxicity induced by Aβ_1-42.

Dehydroeffusol Pprevents Amyloid β1-42-mediated Hippocampal Neurodegeneration via Reducing Intracellular Zn2+ Toxicity

Dehydroeffusol, a phenanthrene isolated from Juncus effusus, is a Chinese medicine. To explore an efficacy of dehydroeffusol administration for prevention and cure of Alzheimer's disease, here we examined the effect of dehydroeffusol on amyloid β_1-42 (Aβ_1-42)-mediated hippocampal neurodegeneration. Dehydroeffusol (15 mg/kg body weight) was orally administered to mice once a day for 6 days and then human Aβ_1-42 was injected intracerebroventricularly followed by oral administration for 12 days. Neurodegeneration in the dentate granule cell layer, which was determined 2 weeks after Aβ_1-42 injection, was rescued by dehydroeffusol administration. Aβ staining (uptake) was not reduced in the dentate granule cell layer by pre-administration of dehydroeffusol for 6 days, while increase in intracellular Zn²⁺ induced with Aβ_1-42 was reduced, suggesting that pre-administration of dehydroeffusol prior to Aβ_1-42 injection is effective for Aβ_1-42-mediated neurodegeneration that was linked with intracellular Zn²⁺ toxicity. As a matter of fact, pre-administration of dehydroeffusol rescued Aβ_1-42-mediated neurodegeneration. Interestingly, pre-administration of dehydroeffusol increased synthesis of metallothioneins, intracellular Zn²⁺-binding proteins, in the dentate granule cell layer, which can capture Zn²⁺ from Zn-Aβ_1-42 complexes. The present study indicates that pre-administration of dehydroeffusol protects Aβ_1-42-mediated neurodegeneration in the hippocampus by reducing intracellular Zn²⁺ toxicity, which is linked with induced synthesis of metallothioneins. Dehydroeffusol, a novel inducer of metallothioneins, may protect Aβ_1-42-induced pathogenesis in Alzheimer's disease.

[Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis focused on intracellular Zn2+ toxicity and its defense strategy]

The basal levels of intracellular Zn²⁺ and extracellular Zn²⁺ are in the range of ~100 pM and ~10 nM, respectively, in the hippocampus. Extracellular Zn²⁺ dynamics, which serves bidirectionally and involved in cognitive activity and cognitive decline, is modified by extracellular glutamate signaling and the presence of amyloid-β_1-42 (Aβ_1-42), a causative peptide in Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis. When human Aβ_1-42 reaches 100-500 pM in the extracellular compartment of the rat hippocampus, Zn-Aβ_1-42 complexes are produced and readily taken up into dentate granule cells in a synaptic activity-independent manner. Furthermore, intracellular Zn-Aβ_1-42 complexes release Zn²⁺ followed by intracellular Zn²⁺ dysregulation. Aβ_1-42-mediated intracellular Zn²⁺ toxicity is accelerated with aging, because extracellular Zn²⁺ is age-relatedly increased. We have reported that Aβ_1-42 released physiologically from neuron terminals disrupts intracellular Zn²⁺ homeostasis, resulting in age-related cognitive decline and neurodegeneration. Metallothioneins (MTs), zinc-binding proteins can capture Zn²⁺ released from intracellular Zn-Aβ_1-42 complexes and serve for intracellular Zn²⁺-buffering under acute intracellular Zn²⁺ dysregulation. Aβ_1-42-induced pathogenesis leads the AD development and its defense strategy may prevent the development. This review summarizes extracellular Zn²⁺-dependent Aβ_1-42 neurotoxicity, which is accelerated with aging, and the potential defense strategy against AD.

Extracellular Zn2+-Dependent Amyloid-β1-42 Neurotoxicity in Alzheimer's Disease Pathogenesis

The basal level of extracellular Zn²⁺ is in the range of low nanomolar (~ 10 nM) in the hippocampus. However, extracellular Zn²⁺ dynamics plays a key role for not only cognitive activity but also cognitive decline. Extracellular Zn²⁺ dynamics is modified by glutamatergic synapse excitation and the presence of amyloid-β_1-42 (Aβ_1-42), a causative peptide in Alzheimer's disease (AD). When human Aβ_1-42 reaches high picomolar (> 100 pM) in the extracellular compartment of the rat dentate gyrus, Zn-Aβ_1-42 complexes are readily formed and taken up into dentate granule cells, followed by Aβ_1-42-induced cognitive decline that is linked with Zn²⁺ released from intracellular Zn-Aβ_1-42 complexes. Aβ_1-42-induced intracellular Zn²⁺ toxicity is accelerated with aging because of age-related increase in extracellular Zn²⁺. The recent findings suggest that Aβ_1-42 secreted continuously from neuron terminals causes age-related cognitive decline and neurodegeneration via intracellular Zn²⁺ dysregulation. On the other hand, metallothioneins (MTs), zinc-binding proteins, quickly serve for intracellular Zn²⁺-buffering under acute intracellular Zn²⁺ dysregulation. On the basis of the idea that the defense strategy against Aβ_1-42-induced pathogenesis leads to preventing the AD development, this review deals with extracellular Zn²⁺-dependent Aβ_1-42 neurotoxicity, which is accelerated with aging.