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Kellermayer R, Carbone M, Horvath TD, Szigeti RG, Buness C, Hirschfield GM, Lewindon PJ. Identifying a therapeutic window of opportunity for people living with primary sclerosing cholangitis: Embryology and the overlap of inflammatory bowel disease with immune-mediated liver injury. Hepatology 2024:01515467-990000000-00881. [PMID: 38743006 DOI: 10.1097/hep.0000000000000926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is a variably progressive, fibrosis-causing autoimmune disorder of the intrahepatic and extrahepatic bile ducts of unclear etiology. PSC is commonly (in 60%-90% of cases) associated with an inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) like PSC-IBD and less commonly with an autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) like PSC-AIH or AIH-overlap disorder. Hepatologists and Gastroenterologists often consider these combined conditions as distinctly different from the classical forms in isolation. Here, we review recent epidemiologic observations and highlight that PSC-IBD and PSC-AIH overlap appear to represent aspects of a common PSC clinico-pathological pathway and manifest in an age-of-presentation-dependent manner. Particularly from the pediatric experience, we hypothesize that all cases of PSC likely originate from a complex "Early PSC"-"IBD"-"AIH" overlap in which PSC defines the uniquely and variably associated "AIH" and "IBD" components along an individualized lifetime continuum. We speculate that a distinctly unique, "diverticular autoimmunity" against the embryonic cecal- and hepatic diverticulum-derived tissues may be the origin of this combined syndrome, where "AIH" and "IBD" variably commence then variably fade while PSC progresses with age. Our hypothesis provides an explanation for the age-dependent variation in the presentation and progression of PSC. This is critical for the optimal targeting of studies into PSC etiopathogenesis and emphasizes the concept of a "developmental window of opportunity for therapeutic mitigation" in what is currently recognized as an irreversible disease process. The discovery of such a window would be critically important for the targeting of interventions, both the administration of current therapies and therapeutic trial planning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Kellermayer
- Division of Pediatric Gastroenterology, Department of Pediatrics, Texas Children's Hospital; Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
- USDA/ARS Children's Nutrition Research Center (CNRC), Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Marco Carbone
- Centre for Autoimmune Liver Diseases, School of Medicine and Surgery, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy
- Liver Unit, ASST Grande Ospedale Metropolitano Niguarda, Milano, Italy
| | - Thomas D Horvath
- Department of Pathology and Immunology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
- Department of Pathology, Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Reka G Szigeti
- Department of Pathology and Genomic Medicine, Houston Methodist Hospital, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Cynthia Buness
- Global Liver Institute Pediatric and Rare Liver Diseases Research Council, Washington DC, USA
- Autoimmune Liver Disease Network for Kids (A-LiNK), Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
- National Patient Advocate Foundation, Washington DC, USA
| | - Gideon M Hirschfield
- Department of Medicine, Toronto Centre for Liver Disease, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
| | - Peter J Lewindon
- Queensland Children's Hospital, Brisbane, QLD, Australia University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
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Lundberg Båve A, von Seth E, Ingre M, Nordenvall C, Bergquist A. Autoimmune diseases in primary sclerosing cholangitis and their first-degree relatives. Hepatology 2024:01515467-990000000-00781. [PMID: 38441983 DOI: 10.1097/hep.0000000000000823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/07/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is linked to inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). However, there is limited overlap between IBD and PSC risk genes, but a stronger association between PSC and other autoimmune conditions. We aimed to assess the coexistence and familial association of autoimmune disorders in PSC, and the influence of autoimmune comorbidity on severe outcomes. APPROACH AND RESULTS In a matched cohort study, 1378 individuals with PSC and 13,549 general population comparators and their first-degree relatives were evaluated. National registries provided data on diagnoses and outcomes (liver transplantation, hepatobiliary cancer, and liver-related death). The OR of autoimmune disease was estimated by logistic regression. The Fine and Gray competing risk regression estimated HRs for severe outcomes. The prevalence of non-IBD, non-autoimmune hepatitis, and autoimmune disease was 18% in PSC and 11% in comparators, OR: 1.77 (95% CI: 1.53-2.05). Highest odds were seen for celiac disease [OR: 4.36 (95% CI: 2.44-7.49)], sarcoidosis [OR: 2.74 (95% CI: 1.29-5.33)], diabetes type 1 [OR: 2.91 (95% CI: 2.05-4.05)], and autoimmune skin disease [OR: 2.15 (95% CI: 1.52-2.96)]. First-degree relatives of individuals with PSC had higher odds of developing IBD, autoimmune hepatitis, and any autoimmune disease than relatives of the comparators [OR: 3.25 (95% CI: 2.68-3.91); OR: 5.94 (95% CI: 2.82-12.02); OR: 1.34 (95% CI: 1.19-1.50)]. Autoimmune comorbidity in PSC was not associated with poorer outcomes [HR: 0.96 (95% CI: 0.71-1.28)]. CONCLUSIONS Individuals with PSC and their first-degree relatives had higher odds of autoimmune disease compared to matched comparators. This finding provides validation for prior genetic discoveries at a phenotypic level. Autoimmune comorbidity did not impact severe outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aiva Lundberg Båve
- Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Upper GI Disease, Division of Hepatology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Erik von Seth
- Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Upper GI Disease, Division of Hepatology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Michael Ingre
- Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Upper GI Disease, Division of Hepatology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Caroline Nordenvall
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Pelvic Cancer, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Annika Bergquist
- Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Upper GI Disease, Division of Hepatology, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
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Chen L, Wang F, Zhang H, Cao B. Exploring potential causal associations between autoimmune diseases and colorectal cancer using bidirectional Mendelian randomization. Sci Rep 2024; 14:1557. [PMID: 38238429 PMCID: PMC10796354 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-51903-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2024] [Indexed: 01/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Several observational studies have revealed an association between autoimmune diseases (AIDs) and colorectal cancer (CRC), although their causal association remained controversial. Therefore, our study used a two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis to verify the causal association between AIDs and CRC. We employed three common MR approaches, including inverse variance weighted (IVW), weighted median, and MR-Egger methods, to assess the causal association between type 1 diabetes (T1D), systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, multiple sclerosis, juvenile idiopathic arthritis, celiac disease, and primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) and CRC. The reverse MR analysis was performed to assess the possibility of reverse causation. To evaluate the validity of the analysis, we also performed sensitivity analysis, such as the heterogeneity test, the horizontal pleiotropy test, and the leave-one-out sensitivity analysis, and validated the results in the validation cohort. Our results showed that genetically predicted T1D was nominally associated with a lower risk of CRC (IVW OR = 0.965, 95% CI = 0.939-0.992, P = 0.012). However, genetic susceptibility to psoriasis nominally increased the risk of CRC (IVW OR = 1.026, 95% CI = 1.002-1.050, P = 0.037). Genetically predicted PSC had a significant causal effect on the increasing risk of CRC (IVW OR = 1.038, 95% CI = 1.016-1.060, P = 5.85 × 10-4). Furthermore, the MR analysis between PSC and the CRC validation cohort indicated consistent results. We found no causal association between genetically predicted other five AIDs and CRC (P > 0.05). The results of reverse MR analysis showed that genetically predicted CRC had no causal effect on T1D, psoriasis, and PSC (P > 0.05). The sensitivity analysis demonstrated that the results of the MR analysis were reliable. Our findings help to understand the causal association between AIDs and CRC, which deserves further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Chen
- Department of Medical Oncology and Radiation Sickness, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Feifan Wang
- Gastrointestinal Disease Diagnosis and Treatment Center, The First Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050000, China
| | - Hua Zhang
- Research Center of Clinical Epidemiology, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Baoshan Cao
- Department of Medical Oncology and Radiation Sickness, Peking University Third Hospital, Beijing, 100191, China.
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Kocheise L, Piseddu I, Vonderlin J, Tjwa ET, Buescher G, Meunier L, Goeggelmann P, Fianchi F, Dumortier J, Riveiro Barciela M, Gevers TJG, Terziroli Beretta-Piccoli B, Londoño MC, Frankova S, Roesner T, Joerg V, Schmidt C, Glaser F, Sutter JP, Fründt TW, Lohse AW, Huber S, von Felden J, Sebode M, Schulze K. PD-1/PD-L1 immune checkpoint therapy demonstrates favorable safety profile in patients with autoimmune and cholestatic liver disease. Front Immunol 2024; 14:1326078. [PMID: 38268921 PMCID: PMC10805832 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1326078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI) have revolutionized the treatment of many malignancies in recent years. However, immune-related adverse events (irAE) are a frequent concern in clinical practice. The safety profile of ICI for the treatment of malignancies in patients diagnosed with autoimmune and cholestatic liver disease (AILD) remains unclear. Due to this uncertainty, these patients were excluded from ICI clinical trials and ICI are withheld from this patient group. In this retrospective multicenter study, we assessed the safety of ICI in patients with AILD. Methods We contacted tertiary referral hospitals for the identification of AILD patients under ICI treatment in Europe via the European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER). Fourteen centers contributed data on AILD patients with malignancies being treated with ICI, another three centers did not treat these patients with ICI due to fear of irAEs. Results In this study, 22 AILD patients under ICI treatment could be identified. Among these patients, 12 had primary biliary cholangitis (PBC), five had primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), four had autoimmune hepatitis (AIH), and one patient had an AIH-PSC variant syndrome. Eleven patients had hepatobiliary cancers and the other 11 patients presented with non-hepatic tumors. The applied ICIs were atezolizumab (n=7), durvalumab (n=5), pembrolizumab (n=4), nivolumab (n=4), spartalizumab (n=1), and in one case combined immunotherapy with nivolumab plus ipilimumab. Among eight patients who presented with grade 1 or 2 irAEs, three demonstrated liver irAEs. Cases with grades ≥ 3 irAEs were not reported. No significant changes in liver tests were observed during the first year after the start of ICI. Discussion This European multicenter study demonstrates that PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors appear to be safe in patients with AILD. Further studies on the safety of more potent dual immune checkpoint therapy are needed. We conclude that immunotherapy should not categorically be withheld from patients with AILD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenz Kocheise
- I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ignazio Piseddu
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
- Department of Medicine II, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität (LMU) München, Munich, Germany
| | - Joscha Vonderlin
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
- Department of Hepatology and Gastroenterology, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Eric T. Tjwa
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, Netherlands
| | - Gustav Buescher
- I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
| | - Lucy Meunier
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
- Service Hépato-Gastro Entérologie, Hôpital St-Eloi, CHU Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Pia Goeggelmann
- Department of Internal Medicine I, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Francesca Fianchi
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
- CEMAD-Centro Malattie dell’Apparato Digerente, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Gemelli IRCCS, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Roma, Italy
| | - Jérôme Dumortier
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
- Service d’hépato-gastroentérologie, Hôpital Edouard Herriot – Hospices civils de Lyon, Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Mar Riveiro Barciela
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
- Liver Unit, Department of Internal Medicine, Hospital Universitari Valle d’Hebron, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Tom J. G. Gevers
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht, Netherlands
- Nutrim School for Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Benedetta Terziroli Beretta-Piccoli
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
- Epatocentro Ticino, Lugano, Switzerland
- Faculty of Biomedical Sciences, Università della Svizzera Italiana, Lugano, Switzerland
- MowatLabs, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King’s College London, King’s College Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - Maria-Carlota Londoño
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
- Liver Unit, Hospital Clinic Barcelona, FCRB-IDIBAPS, CIBEREHD, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sona Frankova
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
- Department of Hepatogastroenterology, Institute for Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Prague, Czechia
| | - Thomas Roesner
- Department of Medical Oncology, National Center of Tumor Diseases (NCT) Heidelberg and Universitätsklinikum Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Vincent Joerg
- I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
| | - Constantin Schmidt
- I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
| | - Fabian Glaser
- I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jan P. Sutter
- I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
| | - Thorben W. Fründt
- I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ansgar W. Lohse
- I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
| | - Samuel Huber
- I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
| | - Johann von Felden
- I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
| | - Marcial Sebode
- I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
| | - Kornelius Schulze
- I. Department of Medicine, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER), Hamburg, Germany
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van Munster KN, Bergquist A, Ponsioen CY. Inflammatory bowel disease and primary sclerosing cholangitis: One disease or two? J Hepatol 2024; 80:155-168. [PMID: 37940453 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2023.09.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Revised: 09/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/29/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023]
Abstract
Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) was declared one of the biggest unmet needs in hepatology during International Liver Congress 2016 in Berlin. Since then, not much has changed unfortunately, largely due to the still elusive pathophysiology of the disease. One of the most striking features of PSC is its association with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), with the majority of patients with PSC being diagnosed with extensive colitis. This review describes the epidemiology of IBD in PSC, its specific phenotype, complications and potential pathophysiological mechanisms connecting the two diseases. Whether PSC is merely an extra-intestinal manifestation of IBD or if PSC and IBD are two distinct diseases that happen to share a common susceptibility that leads to a dual phenotype is debated. Implications for the management of the two diseases together are also discussed. Overall, this review summarises the available data in PSC-IBD and discusses whether PSC and IBD are one or two disease(s).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kim N van Munster
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Annika Bergquist
- Department of Medicine Huddinge, Division of Hepatology, Karolinska Institutet, Department of Upper GI Disease, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Cyriel Y Ponsioen
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
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Tan N, Lubel J, Kemp W, Roberts S, Majeed A. Current Therapeutics in Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis. J Clin Transl Hepatol 2023; 11:1267-1281. [PMID: 37577219 PMCID: PMC10412694 DOI: 10.14218/jcth.2022.00068s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2022] [Revised: 01/01/2023] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is an orphan, cholestatic liver disease that is characterized by inflammatory biliary strictures with variable progression to end-stage liver disease. Its pathophysiology is poorly understood. Chronic biliary inflammation is likely driven by immune dysregulation, gut dysbiosis, and environmental exposures resulting in gut-liver crosstalk and bile acid metabolism disturbances. There is no proven medical therapy that alters disease progression in PSC, with the commonly prescribed ursodeoxycholic acid being shown to improve liver biochemistry at low-moderate doses (15-23 mg/kg/day) but not alter transplant-free survival or liver-related outcomes. Liver transplantation is the only option for patients who develop end-stage liver disease or refractory complications of PSC. Immunosuppressive and antifibrotic agents have not proven to be effective, but there is promise for manipulation of the gut microbiome with fecal microbiota transplantation and antibiotics. Bile acid manipulation via alternate synthetic bile acids such as norursodeoxycholic acid, or interaction at a transcriptional level via nuclear receptor agonists and fibrates have shown potential in phase II trials in PSC with several leading to larger phase III trials. In view of the enhanced malignancy risk, statins, and aspirin show potential for reducing the risk of colorectal cancer and cholangiocarcinoma in PSC patients. For patients who develop clinically relevant strictures with cholestatic symptoms and worsening liver function, balloon dilatation is safer compared with biliary stent insertion with equivalent clinical efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natassia Tan
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Alfred Health; Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - John Lubel
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Alfred Health; Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - William Kemp
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Alfred Health; Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Stuart Roberts
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Alfred Health; Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Ammar Majeed
- Department of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Alfred Health; Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
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Wei Q, Wang Z, Liu X, Liang H, Chen L. Association between Gastric Cancer and 12 Autoimmune Diseases: A Mendelian Randomization Study. Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:1844. [PMID: 37895193 PMCID: PMC10606764 DOI: 10.3390/genes14101844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2023] [Revised: 09/17/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Whether the positive associations of gastric cancer (GC) with autoimmune diseases are causal has always been controversial. This study aims to estimate the causal relationship between GC and 12 autoimmune diseases by means of Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis. METHODS After rigorous evaluation, potential candidate single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) for GC and 12 autoimmune diseases were extracted from genome-wide association study (GWAS) datasets. We performed the MR analyses using the inverse variance weighted (IVW) method as the primary approach to the analysis. Three sensitivity analysis methods were added to assess the robustness of the results. In addition, heterogeneity was measured using Cochran's Q-value, and horizontal pleiotropy was assessed using MR-Egger regression and leave-one-out analysis. RESULTS The IVW result, which is the main method of analysis, shows no evidence of a causal association between GC and any autoimmune disease. The results of IVW analysis show the relationship between rheumatoid arthritis (p = 0.1389), systemic lupus erythematosus (p = 0.1122), Crohn's disease (p = 0.1509), multiple sclerosis (p = 0.3944), primary sclerosing cholangitis (p = 0.9022), primary biliary cirrhosis (p = 0.7776), type 1 diabetes (p = 0.9595), ulcerative colitis (p = 0.5470), eczema (p = 0.3378), asthma (p = 0.7436), celiac disease (p = 0.4032), and psoriasis (p = 0.7622) and GC susceptibility. The same result was obtained with the weighted median and the MR-egger (p > 0.05). CONCLUSION Our study did not find a genetic causal relationship between susceptibility to these autoimmune diseases and GC, which suggests that unmeasured confounders (e.g., inflammatory processes) or shared genetic architecture may be responsible for the reported epidemiologic associations. Further studies of ancestral diversity are warranted to validate such causal associations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Wei
- Department of General Surgery, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, China; (Q.W.)
- Department of General Surgery, Jing’an Branch, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai 200060, China
| | - Ziyu Wang
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Shanghai Tong Ren Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200050, China
| | - Xuanyu Liu
- Department of General Surgery, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, China; (Q.W.)
| | - Haibin Liang
- Department of General Surgery, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, China; (Q.W.)
| | - Lei Chen
- Department of General Surgery, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200092, China; (Q.W.)
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Walmsley M, Tornai D, Cazzagon N, Leburgue A, Mrzljak A, Lenzen H, Carbone M, Madaleno J, Lleo A, Junge N, Schramm C, Bergquist A. Patient-reported quality of care in primary sclerosing cholangitis. Liver Int 2023; 43:1654-1662. [PMID: 37312635 DOI: 10.1111/liv.15650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/04/2023] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Management and follow-up strategies for primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) vary. The aim of the present study was to assess patient-reported quality of care to identify the most important areas for improvement. METHODS Data were collected via an online survey hosted on the EU Survey platform in 11 languages between October 2021 and January 2022. Questions were asked about the disease, symptoms, treatment, investigations and quality of care. RESULTS In total, 798 nontransplanted people with PSC from 33 countries responded. Eighty-six per cent of respondents reported having had at least one symptom. Twenty-four per cent had never undergone an elastography, and 8% had not had a colonoscopy. Nearly half (49%) had never undergone a bone density scan. Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) was used in 90-93% in France, Netherlands and Germany, and 49-50% in the United Kingdom and Sweden. Itch was common (60%), and 50% of those had received any medication. Antihistamines were taken by 27%, cholestyramine by 21%, rifampicin by 13% and bezafibrate by 6.5%. Forty-one per cent had been offered participation in a clinical trial or research. The majority (91%) reported that they were confident with their care although half of the individuals reported the need for more information on disease prognosis and diet. CONCLUSION Symptom burden in PSC is high, and the most important areas of improvement are disease monitoring with more widespread use of elastography, bone density scan and appropriate treatment for itch. Personalised prognostic information should be offered to all individuals with PSC and include information on how they can improve their health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martine Walmsley
- PSC Support, Oxford, UK
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER)
| | - Dávid Tornai
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER)
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Nora Cazzagon
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER)
- Department of Surgery, Oncology and Gastroenterology, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
- Azienda Ospedale - Università Padova, Padova, Italy
| | - Angela Leburgue
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER)
- Albi, Association pour la Lutte contre les maladies inflammatoires du foie et des voies biliaires, Versailles, France
| | - Anna Mrzljak
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER)
- Department of Medicine, Merkur University Hospital, Zagreb, Croatia
- School of Medicine, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Henrike Lenzen
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER)
- Department of Gastroenterology, Hepatology and Endocrinology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Marco Carbone
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER)
- Division of Gastroenterology, University of Milano-Bicocca, Milan, Italy
- Fondazione IRCCS San Gerardo dei Tintori, Monza, Italy
| | - João Madaleno
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER)
- Liver Disease Unit, Internal Medicine Department, Centro Hospitalar e Universitário de Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ana Lleo
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER)
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Milan, Italy
- Division of Internal Medicine and Hepatology, Department of Gastroenterology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center IRCCS, Rozzano, Italy
| | - Norman Junge
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER)
- Division for Pediatric Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Pediatric Kidney, Liver, and Metabolic Diseases, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Christoph Schramm
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER)
- I. Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik, and Universitätsklinikum Hamburg Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- Martin Zeitz Center for Rare Diseases, University Medical Center Hamburg Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- Hamburg Center of Translational Immunology, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Annika Bergquist
- European Reference Network on Hepatological Diseases (ERN RARE-LIVER)
- Department of Upper Abdominal Diseases, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Medicine Huddinge, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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9
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Nguyen A, Sagvand BT, Alizadeh M, Nguyen C, Scott W, von Rosenvinge EC. Primary sclerosing cholangitis and pancreatic cancer: A retrospective cohort study of United States veterans. FRONTIERS IN GASTROENTEROLOGY (LAUSANNE, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 1:1076788. [PMID: 38347877 PMCID: PMC10860374 DOI: 10.3389/fgstr.2022.1076788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/15/2024]
Abstract
Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) is associated with hepatobiliary and colorectal cancers, but it remains uncertain if PSC increases the risk for pancreatic cancer. While some European studies have suggested an increased risk of pancreatic cancer in PSC patients, other studies have not. And these studies did not well account for presence or absence of concomitant inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The purpose of this study is to investigate the prevalence of pancreatic cancer in United States veterans with PSC both with and without IBD. Methods This retrospective study used International Classification of Diseases, Tenth Revision (ICD-10) codes to identify patients with PSC, IBD, and pancreatic cancer from the Veterans Affairs (VA) Corporate Data Warehouse. The prevalence of pancreatic cancer in patients with PSC only, IBD only, PSC with IBD, and neither PSC nor IBD were compared. Logistic regression was used to control for age, gender, chronic pancreatitis, diabetes mellitus, and tobacco and alcohol use. Results A total of 946 patients with PSC were identified from a population of over 9 million veterans. 486 (51.4%) of these had concurrent IBD. Additionally 112,653 patients with IBD without PSC were identified. When adjusted for confounding factors, patients with PSC had a significantly higher prevalence of pancreatic cancer compared to the general population and those with IBD without PSC (2.4% vs. 0.2% and 0.5%, respectively). Conclusions Veterans with PSC, particularly those without concomitant IBD, have a high prevalence of pancreatic cancer compared to the general veteran population. Our findings support the need for multicenter prospective studies investigating the benefits of screening for pancreatic cancer in patients with PSC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Nguyen
- Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Affairs (VA) Maryland Health Care System, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Department of Medicine, University of Maryland Medical Center, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Babak Torabi Sagvand
- Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Affairs (VA) Maryland Health Care System, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Maryland Medical Center, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Madeline Alizadeh
- Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Affairs (VA) Maryland Health Care System, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Cydney Nguyen
- Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Affairs (VA) Maryland Health Care System, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Department of Medicine, University of Maryland Medical Center, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - William Scott
- Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Affairs (VA) Maryland Health Care System, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Erik C. von Rosenvinge
- Department of Veterans Affairs, Veterans Affairs (VA) Maryland Health Care System, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, University of Maryland Medical Center, Baltimore, MD, United States
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10
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Berghog J, Hermanson M, de la Croix H, Bengtson J, Block M. Ileo-rectal anastomosis in ulcerative colitis-Long-term outcome, failure and risk of cancer at a tertiary centre. Colorectal Dis 2022; 24:1535-1542. [PMID: 35768885 PMCID: PMC10084240 DOI: 10.1111/codi.16237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2021] [Revised: 06/05/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
AIM Ileo-rectal anastomosis (IRA) is an option to restore bowel continuity after colectomy in patients with ulcerative colitis (UC). Concerns that the remaining rectum may serve as a site for continuing proctitis with subsequent poor function and IRA failure and the fear of development of dysplasia and cancer have led to the abandonment of IRA in large parts of the world. This study investigated the outcome of IRA in a large patient cohort with UC and IRA with regard to failure of IRA and development of dysplasia and cancer. METHODS This was a retrospective data gathering of patients with UC and IRA enrolled at the Department of Colorectal Surgery, Surgical Clinic, Sahlgrenska University Hospital/Östra, Gothenburg, 1972-2019. End-points were IRA failure, rectal dysplasia and cancer. IRA survival analysis and the cumulative probability of rectal cancer were calculated. RESULTS In total, 183 patients (121 men) were included in the study. The IRA failure rate was 34% and the estimated cumulative IRA failure rates were 25% and 35% at 5 and 10 years respectively. Four patients developed rectal cancer and the estimated cumulative probability of rectal cancer was 3% and 6% at 10 and 15 years respectively. CONCLUSION Ileo-rectal anastomosis remains a restorative option after colectomy for UC, even if the failure rate raises some concern. Further knowledge is needed for optimal patient selection to avoid early IRA failures. With increasing probability of rectal cancer over time a vigilant surveillance protocol is mandatory.
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Affiliation(s)
- John Berghog
- Department of Surgery, Sahlgrenska University Hospital/Östra, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Institute of Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy Gothenburg University, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Maria Hermanson
- Department of Surgery, Sahlgrenska University Hospital/Östra, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Institute of Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy Gothenburg University, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Hanna de la Croix
- Department of Surgery, Sahlgrenska University Hospital/Östra, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Institute of Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy Gothenburg University, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Jonas Bengtson
- Department of Surgery, Sahlgrenska University Hospital/Östra, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Institute of Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy Gothenburg University, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Mattias Block
- Department of Surgery, Sahlgrenska University Hospital/Östra, Gothenburg, Sweden.,Institute of Clinical Sciences, Sahlgrenska Academy Gothenburg University, Gothenburg, Sweden
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11
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Wang W, Zhang J, Wang Y, Xu Y, Zhang S. Non-coding ribonucleic acid-mediated CAMSAP1 upregulation leads to poor prognosis with suppressed immune infiltration in liver hepatocellular carcinoma. Front Genet 2022; 13:916847. [PMID: 36212130 PMCID: PMC9532701 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2022.916847] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Liver hepatocellular carcinoma (LIHC) is well-known for its unfavorable prognosis due to the lack of reliable diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers. Calmodulin-regulated spectrin-associated protein 1 (CAMSAP1) is a non-centrosomal microtubule minus-end binding protein that regulates microtubule dynamics. This study aims to investigate the specific role and mechanisms of CAMSAP1 in LIHC. We performed systematical analyses of CAMSAP1 and demonstrated that differential expression of CAMSAP1 is associated with genetic alteration and DNA methylation, and serves as a potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarker in some cancers, especially LIHC. Further evidence suggested that CAMSAP1 overexpression leads to adverse clinical outcomes in advanced LIHC. Moreover, the AC145207.5/LINC01748-miR-101–3p axis is specifically responsible for CAMSAP1 overexpression in LIHC. In addition to the previously reported functions in the cell cycle and regulation of actin cytoskeleton, CAMSAP1-related genes are enriched in cancer- and immune-associated pathways. As expected, CAMSAP1-associated LIHC is infiltrated in the suppressed immune microenvironment. Specifically, except for immune cell infiltration, it is significantly positively correlated with immune checkpoint genes, especially CD274 (PD-L1), and cancer-associated fibroblasts. Prediction of immune checkpoint blockade therapy suggests that these patients may benefit from therapy. Our study is the first to demonstrate that besides genetic alteration and DNA methylation, AC145207.5/LINC01748-miR-101-3p-mediated CAMSAP1 upregulation in advanced LIHC leads to poor prognosis with suppressed immune infiltration, representing a potential diagnostic and prognostic biomarker as well as a promising immunotherapy target for LIHC.
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12
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Zhang Y, Gao X, He Z, Jia H, Chen M, Wang X, Hong L, Cui Y, Wan J. Prevalence of inflammatory bowel disease in patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Liver Int 2022; 42:1814-1822. [PMID: 35689520 DOI: 10.1111/liv.15339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2022] [Revised: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIM Previous studies have established an association between primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), including Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis (UC). The disease burden of IBD in PSC patients was not well estimated. The study aimed to quantify the pooled prevalence of IBD in PSC and to investigate whether subtypes of PSC and sex influence the prevalence of IBD. METHODS PubMed, Embase, and Web of Science were searched through November 2021 for studies reporting data on IBD among PSC patients. The outcomes were the prevalence of IBD in patients with PSC, as well as the association (odds ratio [OR]) of IBD in PSC according to subtype and sex. RESULTS Based on the analysis of 25 studies, the prevalence of IBD in patients with PSC was 71.1% (95% CI 68.2-75.1%), most commonly in UC (55.9%, 95% CI 52.5-59.3%). The pooled prevalence of IBD was 76.9% in Australia (95% CI 71.2-82.6%, 1 study), 75.9% (95% CI 69.5-82.3%, 4 studies) in North America, 70.9% (95% CI 65.8-76.0%, 17 studies) in Europe and 67.0% (95% CI 57.9-76.0%, 2 studies) in Asia. Male PSC patients had a higher prevalence of IBD (OR 1.67, 95% CI 1.52-1.83) and UC (OR 2.02, 95% CI 1.56-2.63) and a lower prevalence of CD (OR 0.77, 95% CI 0.67-0.88) than female patients. Large duct PSC patients had a higher prevalence of IBD (OR 2.57, 95% CI 2.03-3.25) and UC (OR 4.51, 95% CI 1.22-16.71) than small duct PSC patients. CONCLUSIONS The study provided the first pooled estimates of the burden of IBD in patients with PSC and could be used as the basis for risk stratification of PSC patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujie Zhang
- Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medicine, Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Xinbao Gao
- Medical affairs, Tigermed Consulting Co., Ltd, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhiyi He
- Key Laboratory of Shaanxi Province for Craniofacial Precision Medicine Research and Department of Prosthodontics, College of Stomatology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Hui Jia
- Department of gastroenterology, Key Laboratory of Clinical Cancer Pharmacology and Toxicology Research of Zhejiang Province, Affiliated Hangzhou First People's Hospital, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, China
| | - Min Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Diseases and Xijing Hospital of Digestive Diseases, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Xuan Wang
- Department of Neurology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Liu Hong
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Diseases and Xijing Hospital of Digestive Diseases, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Yuanyuan Cui
- Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Basic Medicine, Xi'an Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Jian Wan
- State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Diseases and Xijing Hospital of Digestive Diseases, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
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13
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Yuan F, Pfeiffer RM, Julián‐Serrano S, Arjani S, Barrett MJ, Koshiol J, Stolzenberg‐Solomon RZ. Autoimmune conditions and pancreatic cancer risk in older American adults. Int J Cancer 2022; 152:172-182. [DOI: 10.1002/ijc.34235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 07/20/2022] [Accepted: 07/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fangcheng Yuan
- Division Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute National Institutes of Health Rockville Maryland USA
| | - Ruth M. Pfeiffer
- Division Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute National Institutes of Health Rockville Maryland USA
| | - Sachelly Julián‐Serrano
- Division Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute National Institutes of Health Rockville Maryland USA
| | - Simran Arjani
- Division Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute National Institutes of Health Rockville Maryland USA
| | | | - Jill Koshiol
- Division Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute National Institutes of Health Rockville Maryland USA
| | - Rachael Z. Stolzenberg‐Solomon
- Division Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute National Institutes of Health Rockville Maryland USA
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14
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Trivedi PJ, Bowlus CL, Yimam KK, Razavi H, Estes C. Epidemiology, Natural History, and Outcomes of Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis: A Systematic Review of Population-based Studies. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2022; 20:1687-1700.e4. [PMID: 34474162 DOI: 10.1016/j.cgh.2021.08.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND & AIMS The aim of this study was to quantify the global epidemiology of primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), alongside the incidence of liver transplantation, cancer, and death, through robust systematic review of population-based data. METHODS We searched MEDLINE and EMBASE up to and including June 30, 2020 to identify population-based studies reporting the incidence and/or prevalence of PSC. Studies that did not report original data, or of exclusively pediatric-onset disease (diagnosis age <16 years) or exclusively PSC-associated with inflammatory bowel disease were excluded. RESULTS Of 4922 published studies, 17 fulfilled inclusion criteria; 16 documenting incidence and 14 prevalence. The highest reported incidence of PSC was reported in Northern Europe (Finland, 1.58 and Norway, 1.3 per-100,000 population, respectively) and North America (Minnesota, 1.47); with the lowest being observed across the Mediterranean Basin (Italy, 0.1). Prevalence ranged from 31.7 in Finland and 23.99 in Minnesota, to 1.33 in Singapore and 0.0 in Alaska. Of studies reporting temporal occurrence, an increase in disease incidence was observed across North America and Northern Europe (4 studies), alongside an increase in prevalence over time (4 studies). The incidence and risks for clinical outcomes were presented by 9 of the included studies. Median transplant-free survival ranged from 9.7 (United States) to 20.6 years (Netherlands), with standardized mortality ratios of 2.5 and 4.2 compared with the control population. The standardized incidence of cholangiocarcinoma ranged from 235 (Finland) to 398 (Netherlands). CONCLUSIONS Estimates of PSC incidence and prevalence vary, with most studies conducted in North America and Western Europe; the latter showing a steady increase in disease occurrence over time. Further research is needed to understand changes in disease epidemiology, including etiological drivers, the implications of rising case burden on health care policy, and better appreciation of PSC in the developing world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Palak J Trivedi
- National Institute for Health Research Birmingham Biomedical Research Centre, Centre for Liver and Gastroenterology Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom; Institute of Immunology and Immunotherapy, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom; Institute of Applied Health Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, United Kingdom; Liver Unit, University Hospitals Birmingham National Health Service Foundation Trust Queen Elizabeth, Birmingham, United Kingdom
| | | | - Kidist K Yimam
- Department of Hepatology and Liver Transplantation California Pacific Medical Center, San Francisco, California
| | - Homie Razavi
- Center for Disease Analysis Foundation, Lafayette, Colorado
| | - Chris Estes
- Center for Disease Analysis Foundation, Lafayette, Colorado.
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