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D’Arrigo P, Rossato LAM, Strini A, Serra S. From Waste to Value: Recent Insights into Producing Vanillin from Lignin. Molecules 2024; 29:442. [PMID: 38257355 PMCID: PMC10818928 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29020442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Vanillin, one of the most widely used and appreciated flavoring agents worldwide, is the main constituent of vanilla bean extract, obtained from the seed pods of various members belonging to the Orchidaceae family. Due to the great demand in the food confectionery industry, as well as in the perfume industry, medicine, and more, the majority of vanillin used today is produced synthetically, and only less than one percent of the world's vanilla flavoring market comes directly from the traditional natural sources. The increasing global demand for vanillin requires alternative and overall sustainable new production methods, and the recovery from biobased polymers, like lignin, is an environmentally friendly alternative to chemical synthesis. The present review provides firstly an overview of the different types of vanillin, followed by a description of the main differences between natural and synthetic vanillin, their preparation, the market of interest, and the authentication issues and the related analytical techniques. Then, the review explores the real potentialities of lignin for vanillin production, presenting firstly the well-assessed classical methods and moving towards the most recent promising approaches through chemical, biotechnological and photocatalytic methodologies, together with the challenges and the principal issues associated with each technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola D’Arrigo
- Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, p.zza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy
- Istituto di Scienze e Tecnologie Chimiche “Giulio Natta”, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (SCITEC-CNR), via Luigi Mancinelli 7, 20131 Milan, Italy;
| | - Letizia A. M. Rossato
- Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta”, Politecnico di Milano, p.zza Leonardo da Vinci 32, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Alberto Strini
- Istituto per le Tecnologie della Costruzione, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (ITC-CNR), via Lombardia 49, 20098 San Giuliano Milanese, Italy;
| | - Stefano Serra
- Istituto di Scienze e Tecnologie Chimiche “Giulio Natta”, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche (SCITEC-CNR), via Luigi Mancinelli 7, 20131 Milan, Italy;
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Varona-Torres E, Schug KA. Thermodynamic characterization of interactions between environmental contaminants and room temperature ionic liquids using static headspace gas chromatography with vacuum ultraviolet detection. Anal Chim Acta 2023; 1264:341236. [PMID: 37230731 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2023.341236] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2023] [Revised: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the thermodynamic interactions between an analyte and the sample phase is of paramount importance when choosing a co-solvent in headspace analysis. A sample phase - gas phase equilibrium partition coefficient (Kp) is used fundamentally to describe the distribution of the analyte between the two phases. Kp determinations by headspace gas chromatography (HS-GC) were acquired by two methods: vapor phase calibration (VPC) and phase ratio variation (PRV). Here, we demonstrated a pressurized - loop headspace system in conjunction with gas chromatography vacuum ultraviolet detection (HS-GC-VUV) to directly calculate the concentration of analytes in the gas phase from room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs) sample phases, using pseudo-absolute quantification (PAQ). PAQ, an attribute of VUV detection, allowed for quick determination of Kp and other thermodynamic properties, such as enthalpy (ΔH) and entropy (ΔS) of the system through the use of van't Hoff plots in the temperature range of 70-110 °C. The Kp determinations by PAQ were comparable to those obtained using the VPC method with percent difference ranging from ≤ 1-33%. Kp determinations were made for analytes (cyclohexane, benzene, octane, toluene, chlorobenzene, ethylbenzene, m-,p-, and o-xylene) at the varying temperatures (70-110 °C) using different RTILs (1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium ethylsulfate ([EMIM][ESO4]), 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium diethylphosphate ([EMIM][DEP]), and tris(2-hydroxyethyl)methylammonium methylsulfate ([MTEOA][MeOSO3])) and (1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trisfluoromethanesulfonyl)imide ([EMIM] [NTF2])). The results from the van't Hoff analysis revealed that [EMIM] cation-based RTILs exhibit strong solute-solvent interactions with analytes that have π- electrons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel Varona-Torres
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA
| | - Kevin A Schug
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA.
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3
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High-performance thin-layer chromatography evaluation of the counterfeiting of vanilla flavoring. JPC-J PLANAR CHROMAT 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s00764-022-00179-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Artavia G, Cortés-Herrera C, Granados-Chinchilla F. Selected Instrumental Techniques Applied in Food and Feed: Quality, Safety and Adulteration Analysis. Foods 2021; 10:1081. [PMID: 34068197 PMCID: PMC8152966 DOI: 10.3390/foods10051081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 03/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
This review presents an overall glance at selected instrumental analytical techniques and methods used in food analysis, focusing on their primary food science research applications. The methods described represent approaches that have already been developed or are currently being implemented in our laboratories. Some techniques are widespread and well known and hence we will focus only in very specific examples, whilst the relatively less common techniques applied in food science are covered in a wider fashion. We made a particular emphasis on the works published on this topic in the last five years. When appropriate, we referred the reader to specialized reports highlighting each technique's principle and focused on said technologies' applications in the food analysis field. Each example forwarded will consider the advantages and limitations of the application. Certain study cases will typify that several of the techniques mentioned are used simultaneously to resolve an issue, support novel data, or gather further information from the food sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- Graciela Artavia
- Centro Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, Sede Rodrigo Facio, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501-2060, Costa Rica;
| | - Carolina Cortés-Herrera
- Centro Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología de Alimentos, Sede Rodrigo Facio, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501-2060, Costa Rica;
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Qu B, Jiang J, Mao X, Dong G, Liu Y, Li L, Zhao H. Simultaneous determination of vanillin, ethyl vanillin and methyl vanillin in Chinese infant food and other dairy products by LC-MS/MS. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2021; 38:1096-1104. [PMID: 33938405 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2021.1902573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
An efficient and simple method for determining vanillin, methyl vanillin and ethyl vanillin in milk and dairy products was developed using a liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) procedure coupled to high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Different extraction procedures were tested and optimised by spiking three vanillin compounds into a blank matrix in which none of any food additives were detected, and the extraction with acetonitrile solution and n-hexane as cleaning sorbent allowed an efficient recovery of 87.6-101.7% with RSDs less than 5%. The limit of detection (LOD) ranged from 6.2 to 20.1 μg/kg. High sensitivity, accuracy and selectivity were found for the in-house validated method, which can eliminate the interferences from complicated matrices effectively, and fulfil the quality criteria for routine laboratory application for real samples. The developed method was then finally applied to screen the three analytes in 65 milk and dairy products including infant formula milk powders from local markets to check for compliance with Chinese Regulation. Concentrations of the total vanillin and ethyl vanillin ranged from 0.0323 to 246.3 mg/kg, which is within the limits of Chinese regulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baocheng Qu
- Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, China.,Key Laboratory of Environment Controlled Aquaculture, Ministry of Education, Dalian, China
| | - Jingqiu Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (Ministry of Education), School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
| | - Xiqin Mao
- Dalian Center for Certification and Food and Drug Control, Dalian, China
| | - Guangbin Dong
- Dalian Center for Certification and Food and Drug Control, Dalian, China
| | - Yijun Liu
- Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, China
| | - Li Li
- Dalian Center for Certification and Food and Drug Control, Dalian, China
| | - Hongxia Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (Ministry of Education), School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, China
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Cruse CA, Goodpaster JV. Thermal and spectroscopic analysis of nitrated compounds and their break-down products using gas chromatography/vacuum UV spectroscopy (GC/VUV). Anal Chim Acta 2021; 1143:117-123. [PMID: 33384109 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2020.11.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Revised: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 11/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Gas chromatography/vacuum UV spectroscopy (GC/VUV) was utilized to study various explosives and pharmaceuticals in the nitrate ester and nitramine structural classes. In addition to generating specific VUV spectra for each compound, VUV was used to indicate the onset of thermal decomposition based upon the appearance of break-down products such as nitric oxide, carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, water, and molecular oxygen. The effect of temperature on decomposition could be fit to a logistical function where the fraction of intact compound remaining decreased as the transfer line/flow cell temperature was increased from 200 °C to 300 °C. Utilizing this relationship, the decomposition temperatures for the nitrate ester and nitramine compounds were determined to range between 244 °C and 277 °C. It was also discovered that the decomposition temperature was dependent on the GC carrier gas flow rate and, therefore, the residence time of the compounds in the transfer line/flow cell. For example, the measured decomposition temperature of nitroglycerine ranged from 222 °C to 253 °C across four flow rates. Tracking the appearance/disappearance of decomposition products across this temperature range indicated that NO, CO, and H2CO are final decomposition products while O2 and H2O are intermediate products. The decomposition temperatures for all explosives were highly correlated to similar decomposition measurements taken by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) (r = 0.91) and thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) (r = 0.90-0.98). In addition, the decomposition temperatures for all explosives were negatively correlated to the heat of explosion at constant volume (r = -0.68) and strongly positively correlated to the oxygen balance (r = 0.92).
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney A Cruse
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI), 402 North Blackford Street, LD326, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA
| | - John V Goodpaster
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI), 402 North Blackford Street, LD326, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA; Forensic and Investigative Sciences Program, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI), 402 North Blackford Street, LD326, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA.
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Cruse CA, Pu J, Goodpaster JV. Identifying Thermal Decomposition Products of Nitrate Ester Explosives Using Gas Chromatography-Vacuum Ultraviolet Spectroscopy: An Experimental and Computational Study. APPLIED SPECTROSCOPY 2020; 74:1486-1495. [PMID: 32192365 DOI: 10.1177/0003702820915506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Analysis of nitrate ester explosives (e.g., nitroglycerine) using gas chromatography-vacuum ultraviolet spectroscopy (GC-VUV) results in their thermal decomposition into nitric oxide, water, carbon monoxide, oxygen, and formaldehyde. These decomposition products exhibit highly structured spectra in the VUV that is not seen in larger molecules. Computational analysis using time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT) was utilized to investigate the excited states and vibronic transitions of these decomposition products. The experimental and computational results are compared with those in previous literature using synchrotron spectroscopy, electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), photoabsorption spectroscopy, and other computational excited state methods. It was determined that a benchtop GC-VUV detector gives comparable results to those previously reported, and TDDFT could predict vibronic spacing and model molecular orbital diagrams.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney A Cruse
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI), Indianapolis, USA
| | - Jingzhi Pu
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI), Indianapolis, USA
| | - John V Goodpaster
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI), Indianapolis, USA
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Instrumental and chemometric analysis of opiates via gas chromatography-vacuum ultraviolet spectrophotometry (GC-VUV). Anal Bioanal Chem 2020; 412:1123-1128. [PMID: 31900537 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-019-02337-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2019] [Revised: 11/22/2019] [Accepted: 12/06/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Since its introduction, gas chromatography (GC) coupled to vacuum ultraviolet spectrophotometry (VUV) has been shown to complement mass spectrometry (MS) for materials such as petrochemicals, explosives, pesticides, and drugs. In forensic chemistry, opioids are commonly encountered but rarely are the samples pure. This work focuses on GC-VUV analysis applied to naturally occurring (e.g., morphine), semi-synthetic (e.g., heroin), and synthetic (fentanyl) opioids as well as common adulterants and diluents (e.g., lidocaine and quinine). The specificity of the VUV spectra were examined visually as well as via descriptive statistical methods (e.g., correlation coefficients and sums of square residuals). Multivariate pattern recognition techniques (principal component analysis and discriminant analysis (DA)) were used to prove the opioid spectra can be reliably differentiated. The accuracy of the DA model was 100% for a test set of VUV spectra. Finally, three "street" heroin samples were analyzed to show "real-world" performance for forensic analyses. These samples contained adulterants such as caffeine, as well as by-products of heroin manufacture.
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García-Cicourel AR, Janssen HG. Direct analysis of aromatic hydrocarbons in purified mineral oils for foods and cosmetics applications using gas chromatography with vacuum ultraviolet detection. J Chromatogr A 2019; 1590:113-120. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2018] [Revised: 12/04/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Anthony IGM, Brantley MR, Floyd AR, Gaw CA, Solouki T. Improving Accuracy and Confidence of Chemical Identification by Gas Chromatography/Vacuum Ultraviolet Spectroscopy-Mass Spectrometry: Parallel Gas Chromatography, Vacuum Ultraviolet, and Mass Spectrometry Library Searches. Anal Chem 2018; 90:12307-12313. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.8b04028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ian G. M. Anthony
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Baylor University, Waco, Texas 76706, United States
| | - Matthew R. Brantley
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Baylor University, Waco, Texas 76706, United States
| | - Adam R. Floyd
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Baylor University, Waco, Texas 76706, United States
| | - Christina A. Gaw
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Baylor University, Waco, Texas 76706, United States
| | - Touradj Solouki
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Baylor University, Waco, Texas 76706, United States
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Pardío VT, Flores A, López KM, Martínez DI, Márquez O, Waliszewski KN. Effect of endogenous and exogenous enzymatic treatment of green vanilla beans on extraction of vanillin and main aromatic compounds. Journal of Food Science and Technology 2018; 55:2059-2067. [PMID: 29892106 DOI: 10.1007/s13197-018-3120-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 03/05/2018] [Accepted: 03/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Endogenous and exogenous enzymatic hydrolysis carried out to obtain vanilla extracts with higher concentrations of vanillin using green vanilla beans. Sequences initiated with freezing of green vanilla beans at - 1 °C for 24 h, followed by endogenous hydrolysis under optimal β-glucosidase activity at 4.2 and 35 °C for 96 h, exogenous hydrolysis with Crystalzyme PML-MX at pH 5.0 and 40 °C for 72 h, and ethanol extraction at 40% (v v-1) for 30 days. In the proposed method, 200 g of fresh green vanilla beans with 84% moisture (32 g dry base) were used to obtain a liter of single fold vanilla extract. This method allowed the release of 82.57% of the theoretically available vanillin from its precursor glucovanillin with 5.78 g 100 g-1 green vanilla beans (dry base). Vanillic acid, p-hydroxybenzaldehyde and vanillyl alcohol were also released and found in commercial and enzymatic extracts. Glucovanillin was detected in commercial and traditional extracts but was absent in enzymatic extracts, indicating incomplete hydrolysis during the curing process. An in vitro assay was conducted to determine if the presence of peroxidase during hydrolysis might affect overall vanillin concentration. Results showed that POD can use vanillin as a substrate under conditions similar to those in which hydrolysis was conducted (pH 5.0 and 50 °C), possibly explaining why vanillin concentration was not complete at the end of the process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Violeta T Pardío
- 1Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Veracruzana, 91710 Veracruz, Veracruz Mexico
| | - Argel Flores
- 1Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Veracruzana, 91710 Veracruz, Veracruz Mexico
| | - Karla M López
- 1Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Veracruzana, 91710 Veracruz, Veracruz Mexico
| | - David I Martínez
- 1Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Veracruzana, 91710 Veracruz, Veracruz Mexico
| | - Ofelia Márquez
- 2Centro Universitario de UAEM Amecameca, Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México, Estado de México, Mexico
| | - Krzysztof N Waliszewski
- 3Unidad de Investigación y Desarrollo de Alimentos, Instituto Tecnológico de Veracruz, 91860 Veracruz, Veracruz Mexico
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Zavahir JS, Nolvachai Y, Marriott PJ. Molecular spectroscopy – Information rich detection for gas chromatography. Trends Analyt Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2017.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Leghissa A, Smuts J, Qiu C, Hildenbrand ZL, Schug KA. Detection of cannabinoids and cannabinoid metabolites using gas chromatography with vacuum ultraviolet spectroscopy. SEPARATION SCIENCE PLUS 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/sscp.201700005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Allegra Leghissa
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; The University of Texas at Arlington; Arlington TX USA
| | | | - Changling Qiu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; The University of Texas at Arlington; Arlington TX USA
| | | | - Kevin A. Schug
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry; The University of Texas at Arlington; Arlington TX USA
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