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Si Y, Zhang H, Zhou Z, Zhu X, Yang Y, Liu H, Zhang L, Cheng L, Wang K, Ye W, Lv X, Zhang X, Hou W, Zhao G, Lei Y, Zhang F, Ma H. RIPK3 promotes hantaviral replication by restricting JAK-STAT signaling without triggering necroptosis. Virol Sin 2023; 38:741-754. [PMID: 37633447 PMCID: PMC10590702 DOI: 10.1016/j.virs.2023.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Hantaan virus (HTNV) is a rodent-borne virus that causes hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS), resulting in a high mortality rate of 15%. Interferons (IFNs) play a critical role in the anti-hantaviral immune response, and IFN pretreatment efficiently restricts HTNV infection by triggering the expression of a series of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) through the Janus kinase-signal transducer and activator of transcription 1 (JAK-STAT) pathway. However, the tremendous amount of IFNs produced during late infection could not restrain HTNV replication, and the mechanism remains unclear. Here, we demonstrated that receptor-interacting protein kinase 3 (RIPK3), a crucial molecule that mediates necroptosis, was activated by HTNV and contributed to hantavirus evasion of IFN responses by inhibiting STAT1 phosphorylation. RNA-seq analysis revealed the upregulation of multiple cell death-related genes after HTNV infection, with RIPK3 identified as a key modulator of viral replication. RIPK3 ablation significantly enhanced ISGs expression and restrained HTNV replication, without affecting the expression of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) or the production of type I IFNs. Conversely, exogenously expressed RIPK3 compromised the host's antiviral response and facilitated HTNV replication. RIPK3-/- mice also maintained a robust ability to clear HTNV with enhanced innate immune responses. Mechanistically, we found that RIPK3 could bind STAT1 and inhibit STAT1 phosphorylation dependent on the protein kinase domain (PKD) of RIPK3 but not its kinase activity. Overall, these observations demonstrated a noncanonical function of RIPK3 during viral infection and have elucidated a novel host innate immunity evasion strategy utilized by HTNV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Si
- Department of Microbiology, School of Basic Medicine, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Haijun Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Xijing Hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China; Center of Clinical Aerospace Medicine, School of Aerospace Medicine, Key Laboratory of Aerospace Medicine of Ministry of Education, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Ziqing Zhou
- Department of Microbiology, School of Basic Medicine, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Xudong Zhu
- Department of Microbiology, School of Basic Medicine, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Yongheng Yang
- Department of Microbiology, School of Basic Medicine, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - He Liu
- Department of Microbiology, School of Basic Medicine, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Liang Zhang
- Department of Microbiology, School of Basic Medicine, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Linfeng Cheng
- Department of Microbiology, School of Basic Medicine, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Kerong Wang
- Department of Microbiology, School of Basic Medicine, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Wei Ye
- Department of Microbiology, School of Basic Medicine, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Xin Lv
- Department of Microbiology, School of Basic Medicine, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Xijing Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology & Critical Care Medicine, Xijing Hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Wugang Hou
- Department of Anesthesiology & Critical Care Medicine, Xijing Hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China
| | - Gang Zhao
- Department of Neurology, Xijing Hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China; The College of Life Sciences and Medicine, Northwest University, Xi'an, 710069, China
| | - Yingfeng Lei
- Department of Microbiology, School of Basic Medicine, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China.
| | - Fanglin Zhang
- Department of Microbiology, School of Basic Medicine, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China.
| | - Hongwei Ma
- Department of Microbiology, School of Basic Medicine, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China; Department of Anesthesiology & Critical Care Medicine, Xijing Hospital, Air Force Medical University, Xi'an, 710032, China.
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Cantoni D, Wilkie C, Bentley EM, Mayora-Neto M, Wright E, Scott S, Ray S, Castillo-Olivares J, Heeney JL, Mattiuzzo G, Temperton NJ. Correlation between pseudotyped virus and authentic virus neutralisation assays, a systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1184362. [PMID: 37790941 PMCID: PMC10544934 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1184362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The virus neutralization assay is a principal method to assess the efficacy of antibodies in blocking viral entry. Due to biosafety handling requirements of viruses classified as hazard group 3 or 4, pseudotyped viruses can be used as a safer alternative. However, it is often queried how well the results derived from pseudotyped viruses correlate with authentic virus. This systematic review and meta-analysis was designed to comprehensively evaluate the correlation between the two assays. Methods Using PubMed and Google Scholar, reports that incorporated neutralisation assays with both pseudotyped virus, authentic virus, and the application of a mathematical formula to assess the relationship between the results, were selected for review. Our searches identified 67 reports, of which 22 underwent a three-level meta-analysis. Results The three-level meta-analysis revealed a high level of correlation between pseudotyped viruses and authentic viruses when used in an neutralisation assay. Reports that were not included in the meta-analysis also showed a high degree of correlation, with the exception of lentiviral-based pseudotyped Ebola viruses. Conclusion Pseudotyped viruses identified in this report can be used as a surrogate for authentic virus, though care must be taken in considering which pseudotype core to use when generating new uncharacterised pseudotyped viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Cantoni
- MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Craig Wilkie
- School of Mathematics & Statistics, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Emma M. Bentley
- Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency, South Mimms, United Kingdom
| | - Martin Mayora-Neto
- Viral Pseudotype Unit, Medway School of Pharmacy, The Universities of Greenwich and Kent at Medway, Chatham, United Kingdom
| | - Edward Wright
- Viral Pseudotype Unit, School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | - Simon Scott
- Viral Pseudotype Unit, Medway School of Pharmacy, The Universities of Greenwich and Kent at Medway, Chatham, United Kingdom
| | - Surajit Ray
- School of Mathematics & Statistics, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Javier Castillo-Olivares
- Laboratory of Viral Zoonotics, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge University, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan Luke Heeney
- Laboratory of Viral Zoonotics, Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge University, Cambridge, United Kingdom
- DIOSynVax, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Giada Mattiuzzo
- Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency, South Mimms, United Kingdom
| | - Nigel James Temperton
- Viral Pseudotype Unit, Medway School of Pharmacy, The Universities of Greenwich and Kent at Medway, Chatham, United Kingdom
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Assays Based on Pseudotyped Viruses. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2023; 1407:29-44. [PMID: 36920690 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-99-0113-5_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/16/2023]
Abstract
Pseudotyped viruses are more and more widely used in virus research and the evaluation of antiviral products because of their high safety, simple operation, high accessibility, ease in achieving standardization, and high throughput. The development of measures based on pseudotyped virus is closely related to the characteristics of viruses, and it is also necessary to follow the principles of assay development. Only in the process of method development, where the key parameters that affect the results are systematically optimized and the preliminary established method is fully validated, can the accuracy, reliability, and repeatability of the test results be ensured. Only the method established on this basis can be transferred to different laboratories and make the results of different laboratories comparable. This paper summarizes the specific aspects and general principles in the development of assays based on pseudotyped virus, which is of reference value for the development of similar methods.
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Ning T, Huang W, Min L, Yang Y, Liu S, Xu J, Zhang N, Xie SA, Zhu S, Wang Y. Pseudotyped Viruses for Orthohantavirus. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2023; 1407:229-252. [PMID: 36920700 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-99-0113-5_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/16/2023]
Abstract
Orthohantaviruses, members of the Orthohantavirus genus of Hantaviridae family of the Bunyavirales order, are enveloped, negative-sense, single-stranded, tripartite RNA viruses. They are emerging zoonotic pathogens carried by small mammals including rodents, moles, shrews, and bats and are the etiologic agents of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) and hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS) among humans. With the characteristics of low biological risk but strong operability, a variety of pseudotyped viruses have been constructed as alternatives to authentic orthohantaviruses to help delineate the roles of host factors in viral entry and other virus-host interactions, to assist in deciphering mechanisms of immune response and correlates of protection, to enhance our understanding of viral antigenic property, to characterize viral entry inhibitors, and to be developed as vaccines. In this chapter, we will discuss the general property of orthohantavirus, construction of pseudotyped orthohantaviruses based on different packaging systems, and their current applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingting Ning
- Department of Gastroenterology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Disease, Beijing Digestive Disease Center, Beijing Key Laboratory for Precancerous Lesion of Digestive Disease, Beijing, China
| | - Weijin Huang
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sexually Transmitted Virus Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC), Beijing, China
| | - Li Min
- Department of Gastroenterology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Disease, Beijing Digestive Disease Center, Beijing Key Laboratory for Precancerous Lesion of Digestive Disease, Beijing, China
| | - Yi Yang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Disease, Beijing Digestive Disease Center, Beijing Key Laboratory for Precancerous Lesion of Digestive Disease, Beijing, China
| | - Si Liu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Disease, Beijing Digestive Disease Center, Beijing Key Laboratory for Precancerous Lesion of Digestive Disease, Beijing, China
| | - Junxuan Xu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Disease, Beijing Digestive Disease Center, Beijing Key Laboratory for Precancerous Lesion of Digestive Disease, Beijing, China
| | - Nan Zhang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Disease, Beijing Digestive Disease Center, Beijing Key Laboratory for Precancerous Lesion of Digestive Disease, Beijing, China
| | - Si-An Xie
- Department of Gastroenterology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Disease, Beijing Digestive Disease Center, Beijing Key Laboratory for Precancerous Lesion of Digestive Disease, Beijing, China
| | - Shengtao Zhu
- Department of Gastroenterology, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, National Clinical Research Center for Digestive Disease, Beijing Digestive Disease Center, Beijing Key Laboratory for Precancerous Lesion of Digestive Disease, Beijing, China.
| | - Youchun Wang
- Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China. .,Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medicine Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, China.
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Wang Y, Zhou Z, Wu X, Li T, Wu J, Cai M, Nie J, Wang W, Cui Z. Pseudotyped Viruses. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2023; 1407:1-27. [PMID: 36920689 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-99-0113-5_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/16/2023]
Abstract
Pseudotyped viruses have been constructed for many viruses. They can mimic the authentic virus and have many advantages compared to authentic viruses. Thus, they have been widely used as a surrogate of authentic virus for viral function analysis, detection of neutralizing antibodies, screening viral entry inhibitors, and others. This chapter reviewed the progress in the field of pseudotyped viruses in general, including the definition and the advantages of pseudotyped viruses, their potential usage, different strategies or vectors used for the construction of pseudotyped viruses, and factors that affect the construction of pseudotyped viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youchun Wang
- Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China.
- Institute of Medical Biology, Chinese Academy of Medicine Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Kunming, China.
| | - Zehua Zhou
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sex-transmitted Virus Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC) and WHO Collaborating Center for Standardization and Evaluation of Biologicals, Beijing, China
| | - Xi Wu
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sex-transmitted Virus Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC) and WHO Collaborating Center for Standardization and Evaluation of Biologicals, Beijing, China
| | - Tao Li
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sex-transmitted Virus Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC) and WHO Collaborating Center for Standardization and Evaluation of Biologicals, Beijing, China
| | - Jiajing Wu
- Beijing Yunling Biotechnology Co., Ltd., Beijing, China
| | - Meina Cai
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sex-transmitted Virus Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC) and WHO Collaborating Center for Standardization and Evaluation of Biologicals, Beijing, China
| | - Jianhui Nie
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sex-transmitted Virus Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC) and WHO Collaborating Center for Standardization and Evaluation of Biologicals, Beijing, China
| | - Wenbo Wang
- Division of Monoclonal Antibody Products, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC) and WHO Collaborating Center for Standardization and Evaluation of Biologicals, Beijing, China
| | - Zhimin Cui
- Division of HIV/AIDS and Sex-transmitted Virus Vaccines, National Institutes for Food and Drug Control (NIFDC) and WHO Collaborating Center for Standardization and Evaluation of Biologicals, Beijing, China
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Wen X, Zhang L, Liu Q, Xiao X, Huang W, Wang Y. Screening and Identification of HTNVpv Entry Inhibitors with High-throughput Pseudovirus-based Chemiluminescence. Virol Sin 2022; 37:531-537. [PMID: 35513270 PMCID: PMC9437608 DOI: 10.1016/j.virs.2022.04.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Hantaviruses, such as Hantaan virus (HTNV) and Seoul virus, are the causative agents of Hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS) and hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS), and are important zoonotic pathogens. China has the highest incidence of HFRS, which is mainly caused by HTNV and Seoul virus. No approved antiviral drugs are available for these hantaviral diseases. Here, a chemiluminescence-based high-throughput-screening (HTS) assay was developed and used to screen HTNV pseudovirus (HTNVpv) inhibitors in a library of 1813 approved drugs and 556 small-molecule compounds from traditional Chinese medicine sources. We identified six compounds with in vitro anti-HTNVpv activities in the low-micromolar range (EC50 values of 0.1–2.2 μmol/L; selectivity index of 40–900). Among the six selected compounds, cepharanthine not only showed good anti-HTNVpv activity in vitro but also inhibited HTNVpv-fluc infection in Balb/c mice 5 h after infection by 94% (180 mg/kg/d, P < 0.01), 93% (90 mg/kg/d, P < 0.01), or 92% (45 mg/kg/d, P < 0.01), respectively, in a bioluminescent imaging mouse model. A time-of-addition analysis suggested that the antiviral mechanism of cepharanthine involves the membrane fusion and entry phases. Overall, we have established a HTS method for antiviral drugs screening, and shown that cepharanthine is a candidate for HCPS and HFRS therapy. These findings may offer a starting point for the treatment of patients infected with hantaviruses. A chemiluminescence-based high-throughput-screening (HTS) assay was used to screen HTNV pseudovirus (HTNVpv) inhibitors. Cepharanthine showed good anti-HTNVpv activity in vitro and in vivo. A time-of-addition analysis suggested that cepharanthine involves the membrane fusion and entry phases.
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Wang QW, Tao L, Lu SY, Zhu CQ, Ai LL, Luo Y, Yu RB, Lv H, Zhang Y, Wang CC, Tan WL. Genetic and hosts characterization of hantaviruses in port areas in Hainan Province, P. R. China. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0264859. [PMID: 35239751 PMCID: PMC8893628 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0264859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hantaviruses (HVs) are major zoonotic pathogens in China that cause hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) posing a major threat to people's health. Hainan Province, an island located in Southeast China, is an ideal region for sea ports. The unique tropical monsoon climate in Hainan provides sufficient living conditions for rodents, which help spread HVs and other rodent-borne diseases. In the routine monitoring of hantavirus, there was no evidence that rodents in Hainan carried hantavirus. No patients infected with hantavirus were found in the past. However, the surveillance of HVs-carrying rodents covering the whole territory of Hainan has not stopped. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS For the monitoring of the prevalence of HVs in rodents and the search for theoretical reference for rodent control and HFRS prevention, a total of 60 rodents from 6 monitoring spots were trapped around main ports in Hainan between 2016 and 2019. HV positive samples were identified by a specific kit and sequenced. The data indicated that seven rodents (Rattus norvegicus) were positive for hantavirus with a positivity rate of 11.67%. Phylogenetic analysis suggested that the two complete sequence strains HN1 and HN4 in this research were highly similar to the sequence strains GZRn36 and GZRn148 isolated in Guangdong Province, and they located in the same phylogenetic tree branch which belongs to S2 subtype. Although the two partial sequences HT1 and HT2 isolated in Xisha Islands belong to S2 subtype according to the phylogenetic tree of L segment, they showed a great nucleotide difference with HN1 and HN4. We also found 13 amino acid variations compared with SEOV 80-39 and 6 amino acid mutations related to epitope, and the variations may reduce the effectiveness of the current HFRS vaccines used in humans. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE The study indicated HVs carried by rodents found in Hainan Province may be transmitted from Guangdong Province through trading ports and carriage of goods by sea. So it is of great significance to strengthen the surveillance of rodents in port areas especially capture and eliminate rodents on ship. Timely elimination of host animals of hantavirus in port areas is necessary to prevent an outbreak of HVs disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiu-wei Wang
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
- Huadong Research Institute for Medicine and Biotechnics, Nanjing, China
| | - Li Tao
- School of Medicine & Holistic Integrative Medicine, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing, China
| | - Su-ying Lu
- Hainan International Travel Healthcare Center, Haikou, China
| | - Chang-qiang Zhu
- Huadong Research Institute for Medicine and Biotechnics, Nanjing, China
| | - Le-le Ai
- Huadong Research Institute for Medicine and Biotechnics, Nanjing, China
| | - Yizhe Luo
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
- Huadong Research Institute for Medicine and Biotechnics, Nanjing, China
| | - Rong-bin Yu
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
| | - Heng Lv
- Huadong Research Institute for Medicine and Biotechnics, Nanjing, China
| | - Yun Zhang
- Huadong Research Institute for Medicine and Biotechnics, Nanjing, China
| | - Chong-cai Wang
- Hainan International Travel Healthcare Center, Haikou, China
| | - Wei-long Tan
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, China
- Huadong Research Institute for Medicine and Biotechnics, Nanjing, China
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Xiang Q, Li L, Wu J, Tian M, Fu Y. Application of pseudovirus system in the development of vaccine, antiviral-drugs, and neutralizing antibodies. Microbiol Res 2022; 258:126993. [PMID: 35240544 PMCID: PMC8848573 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2022.126993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2021] [Revised: 02/12/2022] [Accepted: 02/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Pseudoviruses are viral particles coated with a heterologous envelope protein, which mediates the entry of pseudoviruses as efficiently as that of the live viruses possessing high pathogenicity and infectivity. Due to the deletion of the envelope protein gene and the absence of pathogenic genes, pseudoviruses have no autonomous replication ability and can infect host cells for only a single cycle. In addition, pseudoviruses have the desired characteristics of high safety, strong operability, and can be easily used to perform rapid throughput detection. Therefore, pseudoviruses are widely employed in the mechanistic investigation of viral infection, the screening and evaluation of monoclonal antibodies and antiviral drugs, and the detection of neutralizing antibody titers in serum after vaccination. In this review, we will discuss the construction of pseudoviruses based on different packaging systems, their current applications especially in the research of SARS-CoV-2, limitations, and further directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Xiang
- School of Medicine, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China
| | - Linhao Li
- School of Medicine, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jie Wu
- School of Medicine, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China
| | - Miao Tian
- School of Medicine, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China
| | - Yang Fu
- School of Medicine, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen, China.
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