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Hu Y, Wang Y, Zhang L, Luo M, Wang Y. Neural Network Mechanisms Underlying General Anesthesia: Cortical and Subcortical Nuclei. Neurosci Bull 2024:10.1007/s12264-024-01286-z. [PMID: 39168960 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-024-01286-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Accepted: 06/10/2024] [Indexed: 08/23/2024] Open
Abstract
General anesthesia plays a significant role in modern medicine. However, the precise mechanism of general anesthesia remains unclear, posing a key scientific challenge in anesthesiology. Advances in neuroscience techniques have enabled targeted manipulation of specific neural circuits and the capture of brain-wide neural activity at high resolution. These advances hold promise for elucidating the intricate mechanisms of action of general anesthetics. This review aims to summarize our current understanding of the role of cortical and subcortical nuclei in modulating general anesthesia, providing new evidence of cortico-cortical and thalamocortical networks in relation to anesthesia and consciousness. These insights contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the neural network mechanisms underlying general anesthesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Hu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China
| | - Yun Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China
| | - Lingjing Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China
| | - Mengqiang Luo
- Department of Anesthesiology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China.
| | - Yingwei Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200040, China.
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2
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Marques SI, Sá SI, Carmo H, Carvalho F, Silva JP. Pharmaceutical-mediated neuroimmune modulation in psychiatric/psychological adverse events. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2024; 135:111114. [PMID: 39111563 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2024.111114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2024] [Revised: 07/21/2024] [Accepted: 08/03/2024] [Indexed: 08/13/2024]
Abstract
The therapeutic use of many pharmaceuticals, including small molecules and biological therapies, has been associated with the onset of psychiatric and psychological adverse events (PPAEs), posing substantial concerns to patients' health and safety. These events, which encompass mood (e.g., depression, schizophrenia, suicidal ideation) and cognitive changes (e.g., learning and memory impairment, dementia) often remain undetected until advanced stages of clinical trials or pharmacovigilance, mostly because the mechanisms underlying the onset of PPAEs remain poorly understood. In recent years, the role of neuroimmune modulation (comprising an intricate interplay between various cell types and signaling pathways) in PPAEs has garnered substantial interest. Indeed, understanding these complex interactions would substantially contribute to increase the ability to predict the potential onset of PPAEs during preclinical stages of a new drug's R&D. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the most recent advances in neuroimmune modulation-related mechanisms contributing to the onset of PPAEs and their association with specific pharmaceuticals. Reported data strongly support an association between neuroimmune modulation and the onset of PPAEs. Pharmaceuticals may target specific molecular pathways and pathway elements (e.g., cholinergic and serotonergic systems), which in turn may directly or indirectly impact the inflammatory status and the homeostasis of the brain, regulating inflammation and neuronal function. Also, modulation of the peripheral immune system by pharmaceuticals that do not permeate the blood-brain barrier (e.g., monoclonal antibodies) may alter the neuroimmunomodulatory status of the brain, leading to PPAEs. In summary, this review underscores the diverse pathways through which drugs can influence brain inflammation, shedding light on potential targeted interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra I Marques
- UCIBIO - Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Susana I Sá
- Unit of Anatomy, Department of Biomedicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Alameda Prof. Hernâni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal; CINTESIS@RISE, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Alameda Prof. Hernâni Monteiro, 4200-319 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Helena Carmo
- UCIBIO - Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Félix Carvalho
- UCIBIO - Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
| | - João P Silva
- UCIBIO - Applied Molecular Biosciences Unit, Laboratory of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal; i4HB - Institute for Health and Bioeconomy, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal.
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3
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Qiu NZ, Hou HM, Guo TY, Lv YL, Zhou Y, Zhang FF, Zhang F, Wang XD, Chen W, Gao YF, Chen MH, Zhang XH, Zhang HT, Wang H. Phosphodiesterase 8 (PDE8): Distribution and Cellular Expression and Association with Alzheimer's Disease. Neurochem Res 2024; 49:1993-2004. [PMID: 38782837 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-024-04156-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2023] [Revised: 02/19/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
Phosphodiesterase 8 (PDE8), as a member of PDE superfamily, specifically promotes the hydrolysis and degradation of intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), which may be associated with pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, little is currently known about potential role in the central nervous system (CNS). Here we investigated the distribution and expression of PDE8 in brain of mouse, which we believe can provide evidence for studying the role of PDE8 in CNS and the relationship between PDE8 and AD. Here, C57BL/6J mice were used to observe the distribution patterns of two subtypes of PDE8, PDE8A and PDE8B, in different sexes in vivo by western blot (WB). Meanwhile, C57BL/6J mice were also used to demonstrate the distribution pattern of PDE8 in selected brain regions and localization in neural cells by WB and multiplex immunofluorescence staining. Furthermore, the triple transgenic (3×Tg-AD) mice and wild type (WT) mice of different ages were used to investigate the changes of PDE8 expression in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex during the progression of AD. PDE8 was found to be widely expressed in multiple tissues and organs including heart, kidney, stomach, brain, and liver, spleen, intestines, and uterus, with differences in expression levels between the two subtypes of PDE8A and PDE8B, as well as two sexes. Meanwhile, PDE8 was widely distributed in the brain, especially in areas closely related to cognitive function such as cerebellum, striatum, amygdala, cerebral cortex, and hippocampus, without differences between sexes. Furthermore, PDE8A was found to be expressed in neuronal cells, microglia and astrocytes, while PDE8B is only expressed in neuronal cells and microglia. PDE8A expression in the hippocampus of both female and male 3×Tg-AD mice was gradually increased with ages and PDE8B expression was upregulated only in cerebral cortex of female 3×Tg-AD mice with ages. However, the expression of PDE8A and PDE8B was apparently increased in both cerebral cortex and hippocampus in both female and male 10-month-old 3×Tg-AD mice compared WT mice. These results suggest that PDE8 may be associated with the progression of AD and is a potential target for its prevention and treatment in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nian-Zhuang Qiu
- Institute of Pharmacology, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Tai'an, 271016, Shandong, China
| | - Hui-Mei Hou
- Development Planning and Discipline Construction Department, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Tai'an, 271016, Shandong, China
| | - Tian-Yang Guo
- Institute of Pharmacology, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Tai'an, 271016, Shandong, China
| | - Yu-Li Lv
- Institute of Pharmacology, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Tai'an, 271016, Shandong, China
| | - Yao Zhou
- Institute of Pharmacology, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Tai'an, 271016, Shandong, China
| | - Fang-Fang Zhang
- Institute of Pharmacology, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Tai'an, 271016, Shandong, China
| | - Feng Zhang
- Institute of Pharmacology, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Tai'an, 271016, Shandong, China
| | - Xiao-Dan Wang
- Institute of Pharmacology, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Tai'an, 271016, Shandong, China
| | - Wei Chen
- Institute of Pharmacology, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Tai'an, 271016, Shandong, China
| | - Yong-Feng Gao
- Institute of Pharmacology, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Tai'an, 271016, Shandong, China
| | - Mei-Hua Chen
- Institute of Pharmacology, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Tai'an, 271016, Shandong, China
| | - Xue-Hui Zhang
- Institute of Pharmacology, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Tai'an, 271016, Shandong, China.
| | - Han-Ting Zhang
- Institute of Pharmacology, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Tai'an, 271016, Shandong, China.
- Department of Pharmacology, Qingdao University School of Pharmacy, Qingdao, 266073, Shandong, China.
| | - Hao Wang
- Institute of Pharmacology, Shandong First Medical University & Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences, Tai'an, 271016, Shandong, China.
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4
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Galindo AN, Frey Rubio DA, Hettiaratchi MH. Biomaterial strategies for regulating the neuroinflammatory response. MATERIALS ADVANCES 2024; 5:4025-4054. [PMID: 38774837 PMCID: PMC11103561 DOI: 10.1039/d3ma00736g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/07/2024] [Indexed: 05/24/2024]
Abstract
Injury and disease in the central nervous system (CNS) can result in a dysregulated inflammatory environment that inhibits the repair of functional tissue. Biomaterials present a promising approach to tackle this complex inhibitory environment and modulate the mechanisms involved in neuroinflammation to halt the progression of secondary injury and promote the repair of functional tissue. In this review, we will cover recent advances in biomaterial strategies, including nanoparticles, hydrogels, implantable scaffolds, and neural probe coatings, that have been used to modulate the innate immune response to injury and disease within the CNS. The stages of inflammation following CNS injury and the main inflammatory contributors involved in common neurodegenerative diseases will be discussed, as understanding the inflammatory response to injury and disease is critical for identifying therapeutic targets and designing effective biomaterial-based treatment strategies. Biomaterials and novel composites will then be discussed with an emphasis on strategies that deliver immunomodulatory agents or utilize cell-material interactions to modulate inflammation and promote functional tissue repair. We will explore the application of these biomaterial-based strategies in the context of nanoparticle- and hydrogel-mediated delivery of small molecule drugs and therapeutic proteins to inflamed nervous tissue, implantation of hydrogels and scaffolds to modulate immune cell behavior and guide axon elongation, and neural probe coatings to mitigate glial scarring and enhance signaling at the tissue-device interface. Finally, we will present a future outlook on the growing role of biomaterial-based strategies for immunomodulation in regenerative medicine and neuroengineering applications in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alycia N Galindo
- Phil and Penny Knight Campus for Accelerating Scientific Impact, University of Oregon Eugene OR USA
| | - David A Frey Rubio
- Phil and Penny Knight Campus for Accelerating Scientific Impact, University of Oregon Eugene OR USA
| | - Marian H Hettiaratchi
- Phil and Penny Knight Campus for Accelerating Scientific Impact, University of Oregon Eugene OR USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oregon Eugene OR USA
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Li J, Qi H, Chen Y, Zhu X. Epilepsy and demyelination: Towards a bidirectional relationship. Prog Neurobiol 2024; 234:102588. [PMID: 38378072 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2024.102588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2024] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
Demyelination stands out as a prominent feature in individuals with specific types of epilepsy. Concurrently, individuals with demyelinating diseases, such as multiple sclerosis (MS) are at a greater risk of developing epilepsy compared to non-MS individuals. These bidirectional connections raise the question of whether both pathological conditions share common pathogenic mechanisms. This review focuses on the reciprocal relationship between epilepsy and demyelination diseases. We commence with an overview of the neurological basis of epilepsy and demyelination diseases, followed by an exploration of how our comprehension of these two disorders has evolved in tandem. Additionally, we discuss the potential pathogenic mechanisms contributing to the interactive relationship between these two diseases. A more nuanced understanding of the interplay between epilepsy and demyelination diseases has the potential to unveiling the molecular intricacies of their pathological relationships, paving the way for innovative directions in future clinical management and treatment strategies for these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiayi Li
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School of Southeast University, Nanjing, China; Clinical Medicine, Medical School of Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Honggang Qi
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School of Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yuzhou Chen
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School of Southeast University, Nanjing, China; Clinical Medicine, Medical School of Southeast University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xinjian Zhu
- Department of Pharmacology, Medical School of Southeast University, Nanjing, China.
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Qi C, Yan Y, Cao Q, Zou L, Li S, Yang Q, Deng Q, Wu B, Song B. Elucidating the mechanisms underlying astrocyte-microglia crosstalk in hippocampal neuroinflammation induced by acute diquat exposure. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:15746-15758. [PMID: 38305974 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-31905-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/03/2024]
Abstract
The transition from paraquat (PQ) to diquat (DQ), both organic dication herbicides, in China has led to significant increases in the number of acute DQ poisoning cases. Case studies have shown that acute DQ poisoning resulted in injury to the central nervous system (CNS), but the mechanism underlying the injury remains to be explored. The present study aimed to investigate how DQ influenced purinergic signaling between astrocytes and microglia and whether extracellular ATP (eATP) was involved in promoting neuroinflammation induced by acute DQ toxicity through the activation of the P2X4/NLRP3 signaling pathway. We constructed a rat model of acute DQ toxicity to observe the pathological changes in hippocampal tissues after DQ exposure and measure the expression levels of IL-1β and TNF-α in the hippocampal tissue. We also established an in vitro co-culture model of C6 astrocytes and BV-2 microglia using transwell chambers, measured the amount of eATP secreted into C6 astrocytes after DQ treatment, and assessed the inflammatory response and changes in the P2X4/NLRP3 signaling pathway in BV-2 microglia. The results showed that the neurons in the hippocampal tissue of rats exhibited loose arrangement, nuclear consolidation, and necrosis after DQ exposure, and IL-1β and TNF-α levels were signification higher in the hippocampal tissue after DQ exposure. DQ exposure to the co-cultured cells induced an increase in ATP secretion from C6 astrocytes as well as a significant increase of P2X4, NLRP3, IL-1β, and IL-18 expression in BV-2 microglia. In contrast, pretreatment of C6 astrocytes with apyrase (an ATP hydrolase) resulted in a significant decrease of P2X4, NLRP3, IL-1β, and IL-18 expression in BV-2 microglia. Furthermore, inhibition of P2X4 expression in BV-2 microglia by transfection with si-P2X4 effectively reversed the increase of NLRP3, IL-1β, and IL-18 in BV-2 microglia induced by DQ when co-cultured with C6 astrocytes. These results indicate that astrocytes can activate the P2X4/NLRP3 signaling pathway in microglia through the DQ-induced extracellular release of ATP to promote neuroinflammation in rat hippocampal tissue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changcun Qi
- Department of Occupational Health and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050000, Hebei, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Environment and Human Health, Shijiazhuang, 050000, Hebei, China
| | - Yuandong Yan
- Department of Occupational Health and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050000, Hebei, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Environment and Human Health, Shijiazhuang, 050000, Hebei, China
| | - Qi Cao
- Department of Occupational Health and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050000, Hebei, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Environment and Human Health, Shijiazhuang, 050000, Hebei, China
| | - Lingyun Zou
- Department of Occupational Health and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050000, Hebei, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Environment and Human Health, Shijiazhuang, 050000, Hebei, China
| | - Shanshan Li
- Department of Occupational Health and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050000, Hebei, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Environment and Human Health, Shijiazhuang, 050000, Hebei, China
| | - Qiuyu Yang
- Department of Occupational Health and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050000, Hebei, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Environment and Human Health, Shijiazhuang, 050000, Hebei, China
| | - Qing Deng
- Department of Occupational Health and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050000, Hebei, China
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Environment and Human Health, Shijiazhuang, 050000, Hebei, China
| | - Bailin Wu
- Department of Radiology, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050000, Hebei, China
| | - Bo Song
- Department of Occupational Health and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, 050000, Hebei, China.
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Environment and Human Health, Shijiazhuang, 050000, Hebei, China.
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Lin W, Zhao XY, Cheng JW, Li LT, Jiang Q, Zhang YX, Han F. Signaling pathways in brain ischemia: Mechanisms and therapeutic implications. Pharmacol Ther 2023; 251:108541. [PMID: 37783348 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2023.108541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2023] [Revised: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
Ischemic stroke occurs when the arteries supplying blood to the brain are narrowed or blocked, inducing damage to brain tissue due to a lack of blood supply. One effective way to reduce brain damage and alleviate symptoms is to reopen blocked blood vessels in a timely manner and reduce neuronal damage. To achieve this, researchers have focused on identifying key cellular signaling pathways that can be targeted with drugs. These pathways include oxidative/nitrosative stress, excitatory amino acids and their receptors, inflammatory signaling molecules, metabolic pathways, ion channels, and other molecular events involved in stroke pathology. However, evidence suggests that solely focusing on protecting neurons may not yield satisfactory clinical results. Instead, researchers should consider the multifactorial and complex mechanisms underlying stroke pathology, including the interactions between different components of the neurovascular unit. Such an approach is more representative of the actual pathological process observed in clinical settings. This review summarizes recent research on the multiple molecular mechanisms and drug targets in ischemic stroke, as well as recent advances in novel therapeutic strategies. Finally, we discuss the challenges and future prospects of new strategies based on the biological characteristics of stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Lin
- Medical Basic Research Innovation Center for Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases, Ministry of Education, China; International Joint Laboratory for Drug Target of Critical Illnesses, Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China
| | - Xiang-Yu Zhao
- Medical Basic Research Innovation Center for Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases, Ministry of Education, China; International Joint Laboratory for Drug Target of Critical Illnesses, Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China
| | - Jia-Wen Cheng
- Department of Physiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China
| | - Li-Tao Li
- Department of Neurology, Hebei General Hospital, Shijiazhuang 050051, Hebei, China
| | - Quan Jiang
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Yi-Xuan Zhang
- Medical Basic Research Innovation Center for Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases, Ministry of Education, China; International Joint Laboratory for Drug Target of Critical Illnesses, Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China; Gusu School, Nanjing Medical University, Suzhou Municipal Hospital, The Affiliated Suzhou Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Suzhou 215002, China.
| | - Feng Han
- Medical Basic Research Innovation Center for Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases, Ministry of Education, China; International Joint Laboratory for Drug Target of Critical Illnesses, Key Laboratory of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Medicine, School of Pharmacy, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China; Gusu School, Nanjing Medical University, Suzhou Municipal Hospital, The Affiliated Suzhou Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Suzhou 215002, China; Institute of Brain Science, the Affiliated Brain Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing 211166, China.
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He C, Duan S. Novel Insight into Glial Biology and Diseases. Neurosci Bull 2023; 39:365-367. [PMID: 36877440 PMCID: PMC10043134 DOI: 10.1007/s12264-023-01039-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 01/18/2023] [Indexed: 03/07/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Cheng He
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology of Ministry of Education and the Collaborative Innovation Center for Brain Science, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, China.
| | - Shumin Duan
- Department of Neurobiology, MOE Frontier Science Center for Brain Research and Brain-Machine Integration, Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, 310058, China
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