Inhibitory effect of saponin fraction from Codonopsis lanceolata on immune cell-mediated inflammatory responses

Deodeokaloid, a New Indole Alkaloid N-Glycoside and Bioactive Phenolic Compounds from the Roots of Codonopsis lanceolata

Codonopsis lanceolata, commonly known as the bonnet bellflower or deodeok, is primarily found in Eastern Asia. Its roots have been used traditionally across Asia to treat various ailments such as bronchitis, coughs, asthma, and inflammation. In our ongoing efforts to discover bioactive natural products, a phytochemical investigation of the n-BuOH fraction of C. lanceolata root extracts led to the isolation and identification of a new indole alkaloid N-glycoside, deodeokaloid (D-indole-3-lactic acid N-β-D-glucopyranoside) (1), alongside known compounds tangshenoside I (2), tangshenoside IV (3), and chlorogenic acid (4) through HPLC purification. The structure of the new compound 1 was elucidated using 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy and high-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HR-ESIMS). Its absolute configuration was determined through a combination of DP4+ probability analysis and chemical reactions. The isolated compounds 1-4 were evaluated for their anti-Helicobacter pylori and antioxidant activities. In the anti-H. pylori assay, compound 3 showed antibacterial activity similar to that of quercetin as the positive control, inhibiting the bacterial growth by 36.8%. Compound 4 exhibited the most potent antioxidant activity, with an ABTS [2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate)] radical scavenging activity of 1624.7 mmol TE/mol and a DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) radical scavenging capacity of 707.5 mmol Trolox equivalent (TE)/mol. Compounds 2-4 displayed significant intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging capacity in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophage cells. This study highlights C. lanceolata roots as a promising natural source of bioactive compounds with potential therapeutic applications.

UPLC-QTOF-MS-Based Metabolomics and Antioxidant Capacity of Codonopsis lanceolata from Different Geographical Origins

Codonopsis lanceolata (C. lanceolata) has been commonly utilized as a therapeutic plant in traditional medicine. In this study, we examined variations in metabolites in C. lanceolata roots grown in different regions using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS). Multivariate analysis showed that the metabolite profiles of plants grown in Hoengseong and Jeongseon were more similar to each other than to that of C. lanceolata grown in Jeju. Most primary metabolites were present at higher levels in C. lanceolata grown in Jeju. In contrast, C. lanceolata grown in Hoengseong and Jeongseon had high levels of secondary metabolites such as phenylpropanoids and triterpenoid saponins, respectively. In addition, the bioactive compound content and antioxidant capacity of in C. lanceolata grown in Hoengseong and Jeongseon were observed to be higher than those of C. lanceolata grown in Jeju. This study suggests that metabolomics is an effective approach to investigate the difference of metabolite profiling in C. lanceolata from different geographical origins, and is useful for evaluating its pharmacological potential.

Characterization of Codonopsis pilosula subsp. tangshen plastome and comparative analysis of Codonopsis species

Codonopsis pilosula subsp. tangshen is one of the most important medicinal herbs used in traditional Chinese medicine. Correct identification of materials from C. pilosula subsp. tangshen is critical to ensure the efficacy and safety of the associated medicines. Traditional DNA molecular markers could distinguish Codonopsis species well, so we need to develop super or specific molecular markers. In this study, we reported the plastome of Codonopsis pilosula subsp. tangshen (Oliv.) D.Y. Hong conducted phylogenomic and comparative analyses in the Codonopsis genus for the first time. The entire length of the Codonopsis pilosula subsp. tangshen plastome was 170,672 bp. There were 108 genes in the plastome, including 76 protein-coding genes, 28 transfer RNA (tRNA), and four ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes. Comparative analysis indicated that Codonopsis pilosula subsp. tangshen had an unusual large inversion in the large single-copy (LSC) region compared with the other three Codonopsis species. And there were two dispersed repeat sequences at both ends of the inverted regions, which might mediate the generation of this inversion. We found five hypervariable regions among the four Codonopsis species. PCR amplification and Sanger sequencing experiments demonstrated that two hypervariable regions could distinguish three medicinal Codonopsis species. Results obtained from this study will support taxonomic classification, discrimination, and molecular evolutionary studies of Codonopsis species.

Echinacea purpurea water extracts suppress the release of chemical mediators from mast cells

Histamine and leukotrienes (LTs), the chemical mediators released from mast cells, play an important role in type-I allergies such as hay fever. Echinacea purpurea (EP) has traditionally been used for herbal tea and has been reported to show biological functions. We evaluated the inhibitory activity of water extracts of EP petals, leaves, and stems against the chemical mediators released from mast cell lines. Petal and leaf extracts exhibited a significant inhibitory effect on histamine release from the stimulated cells, while the stem extract did not exert any effect. Activity of the petal extract was much stronger than that of the leaf extract. All the extracts significantly suppressed LTB4 production in the stimulated cells and displayed similar activities. The petal extract decreased Syk phosphorylation and Ca2+ influx associated with signal transduction in the stimulated cells. These results suggest that EP petal extract may have a relieving effect on allergic symptoms.

Lancemaside A, a major triterpene saponin of Codonopsis lanceolata enhances regulation of nitric oxide synthesis via eNOS activation

Background

Many studies on the effect of saponin-rich Codonopsis lanceolata as a bioactive source for improving physical health have been performed. C. lanceolata contains triterpenoid saponins, including lancemasides. These saponins are known to be particularly involved in the regulation of blood pressure or hypertension. This study investigated whether lancemaside A (LA), a major triterpenoid saponin from C. lanceolata, regulates nitric oxide (NO) production via the activation of endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) in human umbilical vein endothelial cells.

Methods

Upon separation with petroleum ether, ethyl acetate, and n-butanol, LA was found to be abundant in the n-butanol-soluble portion. For further purification of LA, HPLC was performed to collect fraction, and LA was identified using analysis of LC/MSMS and ¹³C-NMR values. In in vitro, the effects of LA on NO release mechanism in HUVECs were investigated by Griess assay, quantitative real-time reverse-transcription PCR, and Western blotting.

Results

Our results showed that NO production was efficiently improved by treatment with LA in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, the LA treatment resulted in extensive recovery of the NO production suppressed by the eNOS inhibitor, L-NAME, compared with that in the control group. Additionally, the level of eNOS mRNA was increased by this treatment in a dose-dependent manner. These results suggested that LA is an inducer of NO synthesis via eNOS mRNA expression. Also, the study indicated that LA is involved in activating the PI3K/Akt/eNOS signaling pathway.

Conclusion

These results suggested that LA is an inducer of NO synthesis via eNOS mRNA expression. Also, the study indicated that LA is involved in activating the PI3K/Akt/eNOS signaling pathway. These findings suggest the value of using LA as a component of functional foods and natural pharmaceuticals.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12906-019-2516-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Chemical constituents of the roots of Codonopsis lanceolata

A new phenylpropanoid (1), a new alkaloid (11), and a new natural polyacetylene (17), together with nine phenolic compounds (2-10), five alkaloids (12-16), three polyacetylenes (18-20), three triterpenoidal saponins (21-23), one phenylethanoid glycoside (24), and three hexyl glycosides (25-27) with previous known structures, were isolated from the roots of Codonopsis lanceolata. All of the isolates 1-27 were evaluated for their inhibitory effects on LPS-induced nitric oxide (NO) production in RAW 264.7 macrophages and cell viability in A2780 human ovarian cancer cells. Among the isolates, lancemasides A and B have a significant inhibitory effect on the production of NO in RAW264.7 cells (IC₅₀ values < 50 μM). In A2780 cells, lancemaside A exhibited the most potent inhibitory effect on cell viability. This is the first report on the pharmacological activities of lancemaside B (22).

The memory ameliorating effects of DHP1402, an herbal mixture, on cholinergic blockade-induced cognitive dysfunction in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The seeds of Ziziphus jujuba var. spinosa (Bunge) Hu ex H.F Chow (Rhamnaceae) and the roots of Codonopsis lanceolata (Siedbold & Zucc.) Benth. & Hook. f ex Trautv. (Campanulaceae), contained in the DHP1402, have long been used for treating dementia or hypomnesia as folk medicine.

AIM OF THE STUDY

It has been reported that Z. jujuba var. spinosa and C. lanceolata are effective in improving cognitive function, but via different mechanisms. Therefore, in the present study, we evaluated the synergistic effects of Z. jujuba var. spinosa and C. lanceolata on scopolamine-induced memory impairment.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Scopolamine, a cholinergic muscarinic receptor antagonist, was used to induce cognitive dysfunction. We employed several behavioral tasks to estimate the synergistic effect of the seeds of Z. jujuba var. spinosa and the roots of C. lanceolata. In addition, we introduced the Western blotting, the antagonism passive avoidance task to investigate a synergistic effect of an herbal formulation.

RESULTS

Synergistic effects of a combination of Z. jujuba var. spinosa and C. lanceolata at a 5:1 ratio [(w/w), DHP1402] were observed against cognitive dysfunction in the passive avoidance and Y-maze tasks. DHP1402 also ameliorated memory deficits in a dose-dependent manner in these behavioral tasks, as well as in the Morris water maze task. According to the Western blot results, the phosphorylation levels of protein kinase A (PKA), extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) in the hippocampus were also increased in a synergistic manner after the administration of DHP1402. In addition, we found that the effects of DHP1402 on cognitive function were mediated by N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor signalling, based on the antagonism studies. Furthermore, we found that DHP1402 has inhibitory activity against acetylcholinesterase (AChE).

CONCLUSION

DHP1402 attenuates cholinergic blockade-induced cognitive dysfunction through NMDA receptor modulation, PKA-ERK-CREB pathway activation, and AChE inhibition. Therefore, DHP1402 could be a candidate for alleviating cognitive dysfunction.

Ginsenoside improves physicochemical properties and bioavailability of curcumin-loaded nanostructured lipid carrier

The aim of this study was to develop a ginsenoside-modified nanostructured lipid carrier (G-NLC) dispersion containing curcumin. The NLC was prepared by melt emulsification with slight modification process. Different G-NLC dispersion systems were prepared using lipid carrier matrix composed of ginsenoside, phosphatidylcholine, lysophosphatidylcholine, and hydrogenated bean oil. TEM image of the nanoparticles in the NLC dispersion showed core/shell structure, and there was corona-like layer surrounding the particles in the G-NLC. The mean particle size of G-NLC dispersion was in the range of about 300-500 nm and stayed submicron size up to 12 months. The in vitro release of curcumin was faster in pH 1.2 compared to pH 6.8 and it showed linear release pattern after lag time of 1 h. When the G-NLC dispersion was orally administered to rats, C_max of the free curcumin was 15.2 and 32.3 ng/mL at doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg, respectively, while it was below quantification limit when curcumin was administered as of dispersion in distilled water. Based on these results, it is certain that ginsenoside modulated the NLC dispersion, leading to enduring shelf-life of the dispersion system and enhanced bioavailability. These results strongly suggest that ginsenoside holds a promising potential as a pharmaceutical excipient in the pharmaceutical industries to increase the utility of various bioactives.

Evaluating water deficit and glyphosate treatment on the accumulation of phenolic compounds and photosynthesis rate in transgenic Codonopsis lanceolata (Siebold & Zucc.) Trautv. over-expressing γ-tocopherol methyltransferase (γ-tmt) gene

The effect of water stress and herbicide treatment on the phenolic compound concentration and photosynthesis rate in transgenic Codonopsis lanceolata plants over-expressing the γ-tmt gene was investigated and compared to that in control non-transgenic C. lanceolata plants. The total phenolic compound content was investigated using high-performance liquid chromatography combined with diode array detection in C. lanceolata seedlings 3 weeks after water stress and treatment with glyphosate. Changes in the composition of phenolic compounds were observed in leaf and root extracts from transformed C. lanceolata plants following water stress and treatment with glyphosate. The total concentration of phenolic compounds in the leaf extracts of transgenic samples after water stress ranged from 3455.13 ± 40.48 to 8695.00 ± 45.44 µg g-1 dry weight (DW), whereas the total concentration phenolic compound in the leaf extracts of non-transgenic control samples was 5630.83 ± 45.91 µg g-1 DW. The predominant phenolic compounds that increased after the water stress in the transgenic leaf were (+) catechin, benzoic acid, chlorogenic acid, ferulic acid, gallic acid, rutin, vanillic acid, and veratric acid. The total concentration of phenolic compounds in the leaf extracts of transgenic samples after glyphosate treatment ranged from 4744.37 ± 81.81 to 12,051.02 ± 75.00 µg g-1 DW, whereas the total concentration of the leaf extracts of non-transgenic control samples after glyphosate treatment was 3778.28 ± 59.73 µg g-1 DW. Major phenolic compounds that increased in the transgenic C. lanceolata plants after glyphosate treatment included kaempherol, gallic acid, myricetin, p-hydroxybenzjoic acid, quercetin, salicylic acid, t-cinnamic acid, catechin, benzoicacid, ferulic acid, protocatechuic acid, veratric acid, and vanillic acid. Among these, vanillic acid showed the greatest increase in both leaf and root extracts from transgenic plants relative to those from control C. lanceolata plants following treatment with glyphosate, which could affect the 5-enol-pyruvyl shikimate-3-phosphate (EPSP) synthase, an enzyme in the shikimate pathway. We observed enhanced stomatal conductance (gs) and photosynthesis rate (A) in the transgenic plants treated with water stress and glyphosate treatment. The results of this study demonstrated large variations in the functioning of secondary metabolites pathway in response glyphosate and water stress in transgenic C. lanceolata.

Steamed and Fermented Ethanolic Extract from Codonopsis lanceolata Attenuates Amyloid-β-Induced Memory Impairment in Mice

Codonopsis lanceolata (C. lanceolata) is a traditional medicinal plant used for the treatment of certain inflammatory diseases such as asthma, tonsillitis, and pharyngitis. We evaluated whether steamed and fermented C. lanceolata (SFC) extract improves amyloid-β- (Aβ-) induced learning and memory impairment in mice. The Morris water maze and passive avoidance tests were used to evaluate the effect of SFC extract. Moreover, we investigated acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), cyclic AMP response element-binding protein (CREB), and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling in the hippocampus of mice to determine a possible mechanism for the cognitive-enhancing effect. Saponin compounds in SFC were identified by Ultra Performance Liquid Chromatography-Quadrupole-Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS). SFC extract ameliorated amyloid-β-induced memory impairment in the Morris water maze and passive avoidance tests. SFC extract inhibited AChE activity and also significantly increased the level of CREB phosphorylation, BDNF expression, and ERK activation in hippocampal tissue of amyloid-β-treated mice. Lancemasides A, B, C, D, E, and G and foetidissimoside A compounds present in SFC were determined by UPLC-Q-TOF-MS. These results indicate that SFC extract improves Aβ-induced memory deficits and that AChE inhibition and CREB/BDNF/ERK expression is important for the effect of the SFC extract. In addition, lancemaside A specifically may be responsible for efficacious effect of SFC.

Total saponin from Korean Red Ginseng inhibits binding of adhesive proteins to glycoprotein IIb/IIIa via phosphorylation of VASP (Ser(157)) and dephosphorylation of PI3K and Akt

Background

Binding of adhesive proteins (i.e., fibrinogen, fibronectin, vitronectin) to platelet integrin glycoprotein IIb/IIIa (αIIb/β₃) by various agonists (thrombin, collagen, adenosine diphosphate) involve in strength of thrombus. This study was carried out to evaluate the antiplatelet effect of total saponin from Korean Red Ginseng (KRG-TS) by investigating whether KRG-TS inhibits thrombin-induced binding of fibrinogen and fibronectin to αIIb/β₃.

Methods

We investigated the effect of KRG-TS on phosphorylation of vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (VASP) and dephosphorylation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) and Akt, affecting binding of fibrinogen and fibronectin to αIIb/β₃, and clot retraction.

Results

KRG-TS had an antiplatelet effect by inhibiting the binding of fibrinogen and fibronectin to αIIb/β₃ via phosphorylation of VASP (Ser¹⁵⁷), and dephosphorylation of PI3K and Akt on thrombin-induced platelet aggregation. Moreover, A-kinase inhibitor Rp-8-Br-cyclic adenosine monophosphates (cAMPs) reduced KRG-TS-increased VASP (Ser¹⁵⁷) phosphorylation, and increased KRG-TS-inhibited fibrinogen-, and fibronectin-binding to αIIb/β₃. These findings indicate that KRG-TS interferes with the binding of fibrinogen and fibronectin to αIIb/β₃ via cAMP-dependent phosphorylation of VASP (Ser¹⁵⁷). In addition, KRG-TS decreased the rate of clot retraction, reflecting inhibition of αIIb/β₃ activation. In this study, we clarified ginsenoside Ro (G-Ro) in KRG-TS inhibited thrombin-induced platelet aggregation via both inhibition of [Ca²⁺]_i mobilization and increase of cAMP production.

Conclusion

These results strongly indicate that KRG-TS is a beneficial herbal substance inhibiting fibrinogen-, and fibronectin-binding to αIIb/β₃, and clot retraction, and may prevent platelet αIIb/β₃-mediated thrombotic disease. In addition, we demonstrate that G-Ro is a novel compound with antiplatelet characteristics of KRG-TS.

Inhibitory effects of total saponin from Korean Red Ginseng on [Ca(2+)]i mobilization through phosphorylation of cyclic adenosine monophosphate-dependent protein kinase catalytic subunit and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor type I in human platelets

Background

Intracellular Ca²⁺([Ca²⁺]_i) is a platelet aggregation-inducing molecule. Therefore, understanding the inhibitory mechanism of [Ca²⁺]_i mobilization is very important to evaluate the antiplatelet effect of a substance. This study was carried out to understand the Ca²⁺-antagonistic effect of total saponin from Korean Red Ginseng (KRG-TS).

Methods

We investigated the Ca²⁺-antagonistic effect of KRG-TS on cyclic nucleotides-associated phosphorylation of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor type I (IP₃RI) and cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-dependent protein kinase (PKA) in thrombin (0.05 U/mL)-stimulated human platelet aggregation.

Results

The inhibition of [Ca²⁺]_i mobilization by KRG-TS was increased by a PKA inhibitor (Rp-8-Br-cAMPS), which was more stronger than the inhibition by a cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)-dependent protein kinase (PKG) inhibitor (Rp-8-Br-cGMPS). In addition, Rp-8-Br-cAMPS inhibited phosphorylation of PKA catalytic subunit (PKAc) (Thr¹⁹⁷) by KRG-TS. The phosphorylation of IP₃RI (Ser¹⁷⁵⁶) by KRG-TS was very strongly inhibited by Rp-8-Br-cAMPS compared with that by Rp-8-Br-cGMPS. These results suggest that the inhibitory effect of [Ca²⁺]_i mobilization by KRG-TS is more strongly dependent on a cAMP/PKA pathway than a cGMP/PKG pathway. KRG-TS also inhibited the release of adenosine triphosphate and serotonin. In addition, only G-Rg3 of protopanaxadiol in KRG-TS inhibited thrombin-induced platelet aggregation.

Conclusion

These results strongly indicate that KRG-TS is a potent beneficial compound that inhibits [Ca²⁺]_i mobilization in thrombin–platelet interactions, which may result in the prevention of platelet aggregation-mediated thrombotic disease.

Neuroprotective Effect of Steamed and Fermented Codonopsis lanceolata

Codonopsis lanceolata has been used as an herbal medicine for several lung inflammatory diseases, such as asthma, tonsillitis, and pharyngitis. Previously, we showed the neuroprotective effect of steamed and fermented C. lanceolata (SFC) in vitro and in vivo. In the current study, the treatment of HT22 cells with SFC decreased glutamate-induced cell death, suggesting that SFC protected HT22 cells from glutamate-induced cytotoxicity. Based on these, we sought to elucidate the mechanisms of the neuro-protective effect of SFC by measuring the oxidative stress parameters and the expression of Bax and caspase-3 in HT22 cells. SFC reduced contents of ROS, Ca²⁺ and NO. Moreover, SFC restored contents of glutathione and glutathione reductase as well as inhibited Bax and caspase-3 activity in HT22 cells. These results indicate that steamed and fermented C. lanceolata (SFC) extract protected HT22 cells by anti-oxidative effect and inhibition of the expression of Bax and caspase-3.

Cognitive-Enhancing Effect of Steamed and Fermented Codonopsis lanceolata: A Behavioral and Biochemical Study

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by memory impairment. Codonopsis lanceolata (C. lanceolata) has been employed clinically for lung inflammatory diseases such as asthma, tonsillitis, and pharyngitis. The present study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of fermented C. lanceolata (300, 500, and 800 mg/kg) on learning and memory impairment induced by scopolamine by using the Morris water maze and passive avoidance tests. To elucidate possible mechanism of cognitive-enhancing activity, we measured acetylcholinesterase (AchE) activity, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and cyclic AMP response element-binding protein (CREB) expression in the brain of mice. Administration of fermented C. lanceolata (800 mg/kg) led to reduced scopolamine-induced memory impairment in the Morris water maze and passive avoidance tests. Accordingly, the administration of fermented C. lanceolata inhibited AchE activity. Interestingly, the level of CREB phosphorylation and BDNF expression in hippocampal tissue of scopolamine-treated mice was significantly increased by the administration of fermented C. lanceolata. These results indicate that fermented C. lanceolata can ameliorate scopolamine-induced memory deficits in mouse and may be an alternative agent for the treatment of AD.

Lancemaside A from Codonopsis lanceolata modulates the inflammatory responses mediated by monocytes and macrophages

In this study, we aimed to examine the cellular and molecular mechanisms of lancemaside A from Codonopsis lanceolata (Campanulaceae) in the inflammatory responses of monocytes (U937 cells) and macrophages (RAW264.7 cells). Lancemaside A significantly suppressed the inflammatory functions of lipopolysaccharide- (LPS-) treated RAW264.7 cells by suppressing the production of nitric oxide (NO), the expression of the NO-producing enzyme inducible NO synthase (iNOS), the upregulation of the costimulatory molecule CD80, and the morphological changes induced by LPS exposure. In addition, lancemaside A diminished the phagocytic activity of RAW264.7 cells and boosted the neutralizing capacity of these cells when treated with the radical generator sodium nitroprusside (SNP). Interestingly, lancemaside A strongly blocked the adhesion activity of RAW264.7 cells to plastic culture plates, inhibited the cell-cell and cell-fibronectin (FN) adhesion of U937 cells that was triggered by treatment with an anti-β1-integrin (CD29) antibody and immobilized FN, respectively. By evaluating the activation of various intracellular signaling pathways and the levels of related nuclear transcription factors, lancemaside A was found to block the activation of inhibitor of κB kinase (IKK) and p65/nuclear factor- (NF-) κB. Taken together, our findings strongly suggest that the anti-inflammatory function of lancemaside A is the result of its strong antioxidative and IKK/NF-κB inhibitory activities.

Effect of Codonopsis lanceolata with Steamed and Fermented Process on Scopolamine-Induced Memory Impairment in Mice

Codonopsis lanceolata (Campanulaceae) traditionally have been used as a tonic and to treat patients with lung abscesses. Recently, it was proposed that the extract and some compounds isolated from C. lanceolata reversed scopolamine-induced memory and learning deficits. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the improvement of cognitive enhancing effect of C. lanceolata by steam and fermentation process in scopolamine-induced memory impairment mice models by passive avoidance test and Morris water maze test. The extract of C. lanceolata or the extract of steamed and fermented C. lanceolata (SFCE) was orally administered to male mice at the doses of 100 and 300 mg/kg body weight. As a result, mice treated with steamed and fermented C. lanceolata extract (SFCE) (300 mg/kg body weight, p.o.) showed shorter escape latencies than those with C. lanceolata extract or the scopolamine-administered group in Morris water maze test. Also, it exerted longer step-through latency time than scopolamine treated group in passive avoidance test. Furthermore, neuroprotective effect of SFCE on glutamate-induced cytotoxicity was assessed in HT22 cells. Only SFCE-treated cells showed significant protection at 500 μg/ml. Interestingly, steamed C. lanceolata with fermentation contained more phenolic acid including gallic acid and vanillic acid than original C. lanceolata. Collectively, these results suggest that steam and fermentation process of C. lanceolata increased cognitive enhancing activity related to the memory processes and neuroprotective effect than original C. lanceolata.

The Ameliorating Effect of Steamed and Fermented Codonopsis lanceolata on Scopolamine-Induced Memory Impairment in Mice

Codonopsis lanceolata (Campanulaceae) have been traditionally used to treat lung inflammatory diseases, such as asthma, tonsillitis, and pharyngitis. The present study was performed to evaluate the cognitive-enhancing effects of steamed and fermented C. lanceolata in scopolamine-induced memory impairments in mice. Cognitive abilities were determined by the Morris water maze and passive avoidance tests. Mice orally received fermented C. lanceolata extract at doses of 100, 300, or 500 mg/kg body weight. Fermented C. lanceolata extract (500 mg/kg body weight, p.o.) significantly shortened the escape latency times that were increased by scopolamine on the 4th day of trial sessions in the Morris water maze task. In addition, it exerted longer step-through latency times than those of the scopolamine-treated group in the passive avoidance test. Furthermore, the neuroprotective effects of fermented C. lanceolata extract on glutamate-induced neurocytotoxicity were investigated in HT22 cells. Fermented C. lanceolata extract showed a relative protection ratio of 59.62% at 500 μg/mL. In conclusion, fermented C. lanceolata extract ameliorated scopolamine-induced memory impairments, exerted neuroprotective effects, and improved activity compared to that found with original C. lanceolata. Further study will be required to investigate the mechanisms underlying this cognitive-enhancing activity.

Antiobesity Effect of Codonopsis lanceolata in High-Calorie/High-Fat-Diet-Induced Obese Rats

The antiobesity effects of Codonopsis lanceolata (CL) were evaluated in a high-calorie/high-fat-diet (HFD-) induced obesity rat model and 3T3-L1 cells. The Sprague-Dawley male rats were fed a normal diet (ND) or a HFD for a period of 12 weeks. The rats were subdivided into groups: ND, ND + wild Codonopsis lanceolata (wCL) (900 mg/kg/day, p.o.), ND + cultivated Codonopsis lanceolata (cCL) (900 mg/kg/day, p.o.), HFD, HFD + wCL (100, 300, or 900 mg/kg/day, p.o.), HFD + cCL (100, 300, or 900 mg/kg/day, p.o.), and HFD + sibutramine. The body weight gains of the administered HFD + CL (wCL or CCL) were lower than those of the rats fed with only the HFD group. Moreover, the weight of adipose pads and the serum levels of triglycerides, total cholesterol, and low density lipoprotein cholesterol in the group administered HDL + CL were significantly lower than in the HFD group. The inhibitory effect of lipid accumulation in 3T3-L1 cells was measured by Oil Red O staining and reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Treatment of 3T3-L1 cells with wCL inhibited lipid accumulation and expression of C/EBPα and PPARγ. These results suggest that CL has a great potential as a functional food with anti-obesity effects and as a therapeutic alternative in the treatment of obesity.

Bak is a key molecule in apoptosis induced by methanol extracts of Codonopsis lanceolata and Tricholoma matsutake in HSC-2 human oral cancer cells

Since the 5-year survival rate of oral cancer remains low, more effective and non-toxic therapeutic and preventive strategies are required. Certain natural products possess anti-cancer properties. The present study investigated the effects of the methanol extracts of Codonopsis lanceolata (MECI) and Tricholoma matsutake (METM) and identified the molecular target in HSC-2 human oral cancer cells. The results revealed that MECI and METM inhibited growth and induced apoptosis, as demonstrated by poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) cleavage and nuclear condensation and fragmentation. The compounds also increased Bak protein expression, while Bax, Bcl-XL and Mcl-1 were not affected. The results of the present study show that MECI and METM induce apoptosis to inhibit tumor growth of HSC-2 cells by modulating the Bak protein and suggest that Codonopsis lanceolata and Tricholoma matsutake are potential anticancer drug candidates for oral cancer.

Inhibitory effects of costunolide isolated from Laurus nobilis on IgE-induced degranulation of mast cell-like RBL-2H3 cells and the growth of Y16 pro-B cells

This study investigated the inhibitory effects of costunolide isolated from the leaves of Laurus nobilis L. (Lauraceae) on basophil-mediated allergic reactions and interleukin (IL)-5-mediated B cell growth. The effects of costunolide on β-hexosaminidase (a key parameter of degranulation) release and IL-4 expression in rat basophilic leukemia (RBL-2H3) cells were determined by measuring β-hexosaminidase activity and by semi-quantitative RT-PCR, respectively. The effects of costunolide on Y16 pro-B cell viability and growth were determined by 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Costunolide was found significantly to inhibit β-hexosaminidase activity (p < 0.01) and IL-4 transcription in RBL-2H3 cells in a dose-dependent manner. Its 50% inhibitory concentration (IC50 ) was 34 µM, while that of the positive control, ketotifen, was 24 µM (IL-4 mRNA transcription). Moreover, costunolide dose-dependently suppressed pro-B cell growth in IL-5-stimulated Y16 cells. These results provide evidence that costunolide stabilizes mast cells by inhibiting IgE-mediated degranulation and inhibits IL-5-stimulated B cell growth.

Effect of Shen-qi-di-huang decoction on reducing proteinuria by preserving nephrin in adriamycin-induced nephropathy rats

The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of Shen-qi-di-huang decoction on reducing proteinuria and to discuss the mechanism of its action in Adriamycin (ADR)-induced nephropathy rats. The rats were randomly divided into three groups (n=12 each group): normal control (group A); ADR model control (group B); ADR + Shen-qi-di-huang decoction (group C). In group B and C, the rats were intravenously injected with ADR (6.5mg/kg). The rats in group C were orally administrated with Shen-qi-di-huang decoction after the injection of ADR. On day 7, 14, 28, 56 after ADR injection, 24h urine protein was detected. On day 28, 56 after ADR injection, ALB, ALT, serum creatinine (Scr) and BUN were examined. The morphological changes of the kidneys were observed by light microscope and electron microscope on day 28, 56 after ADR injection. The expression of nephrin was determined by immunohistochemistry and RT-PCR on day 28, 56 after ADR injection. Compared with group B, 24h urine protein and Scr decreased in group C on day 56 (P<0.05). The expression of nephrin determined by immunohistochemistry and RT-PCR increased in group C on day 28, 56 (P<0.05). The morphology observed by light microscope and electron microscope improved in group C on day 28, 56. Shen-qi-di-huang decoction decreases proteinuria, protects kidney function, and ameliorates histopathology in ADR-induced rats by preserving nephrin expression.

Effects of probiotic fermentation on the enhancement of biological and pharmacological activities of Codonopsis lanceolata extracted by high pressure treatment

This study was designed to evaluate the enhancement of antioxidant, antimicrobial, enzymatic, cytotoxic, and cognitive activities of Codonopsis lanceolata extracted by high pressure treatment followed by probiotic fermentation. Dried C. lanceolata samples were subjected to 400 MPa for 20 min and then fermented with Bifidobacterium longum B6 (HPE-BLF) and Lactobacillus rhamnosus (HPE-LRF) at 37 °C for 7 days. Compared to conventional extraction (CE-NF, 6.69 mg GAE/g), the phenol amounts of HPE-BLF and HPE-LRF were significantly increased to more than 8 mg GAE/g, while the lowest flavonoid contents were observed for HPE-BLF (0.44 mg RE/mL) and HPE-LRF (0.45 mg RE/mL) (p<0.05). Cinnamic acid was the most abundant phenolic acid in the fermented C. lanceolata. The highest DPPH scavenging activities were observed for HPE-BLF and HPE-LRF, with minimum EC(50) values of 1.26 and 1.18 mg/mL, respectively. The HPE-BLF and HPE-LRF samples exhibited the most noticeable antimicrobial activities against Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella Typhimurium, and Shigella boydii (MICs<15 mg/mL). The fermented C. lanceolata samples effectively inhibited α-glucosidase and tyrosinase activities and potentially improved a scopolamine-induced memory deficit in mice. The application of a fermentation process can effectively improve the biological and pharmacological activities of high-pressure-extracted C. lanceolata by increasing the extraction efficacy and inducing probiotic conversion. The results suggest that the combined treatment of HPE and a fermentation process could be used as alternative extraction method over CE.

Inhibition of 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene-induced atopic dermatitis by topical application of the butanol extract of Cordyceps bassiana in NC/Nga mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

The Cordyceps species are insect-borne mushrooms that have been ethnopharmacologically used for skin diseases such as eczema and dermatitis.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this study, we investigated the curative effects of the butanol fraction (CBBF) of Cordyceps bassiana on atopic dermatitis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Dermatitis was induced by repeated application of 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (DNFB) in NC/Nga mice. After a topical application of CBBF on the skin lesions, the dermatitis score, epidermal thickness, mast cell number, and interleukin (IL)-4 and interferon (IFN)-γ, as well as the levels of histamine and immunoglobulin E (IgE) in the serum, were measured. Moreover, effect of CBBF on histamine release was examined using RBL-2H3 under stimulation with 2,4-dinitrophenylated bovine serum albumin (DNP-BSA).

RESULTS

CBBF inhibited atopic dermatitis symptoms and signs in the DNFB-treated NC/Nga mice. The suppressive activity of topically applied CBBF may be due to the dose-dependent blockade of a series of immunopathological events, including the release of histamine, the production of IgE, and the secretion of IL-4 and IFN-γ. However, this extract did not directly suppress the degranulation process, assessed by measuring β-hexosaminidase release.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results suggest that CBBF can be applied as an effective herbal remedy to treat atopic dermatitis.

Combined effects of probiotic fermentation and high-pressure extraction on the antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antimutagenic activities of deodeok (Codonopsis lanceolata)

This study was designed to evaluate the combined effects of probiotic fermentation and high-pressure extraction (HPE) on the functional properties of Codonopsis lanceolata. The ground C. lanceolata samples were anaerobically fermented with Lactobacillus acidophilus ADH, Bifidobacterium longum B6, Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, or Lactobacillus paracasei at 37 degrees C for 10 days and subjected to 500 MPa at 50 degrees C for 30 min. The extraction yields of C. lanceolata samples were noticeably increased to 29-32% by HPE. The B. longum-fermented C. lanceolata samples extracted by high pressure (BLF-HPE) exhibited the highest antimicrobial activity (MIC < 14 mg/mL) against Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Shigella boydii, and Salmonella typhimurium. The nonfermented C. lanceolata samples extracted with high pressure (NF-HPE) had the highest total phenolic content (13.3 mg of GAE/g). The lowest effective concentrations (EC(50) and EC(0.5)) were 4.55 and 1.76 mg/mL, respectively, for NF-HPE extracts, indicating its highest antioxidant activity. The BLF-HPE and L. rhamnosus-fermented C. lanceolata samples extracted by high pressure (LRF-HPE) exhibited the highest antimutagenic activities in S. typhimurium TA 100, which were 82 and 83% inhibition, respectively. The use of probiotic fermentation and HPE can produce more biologically active compounds in C. lanceolata than the conventional solvent extraction method. The results provide pharmaceutically useful information for improving biological properties and an approach to drug discovery.