Self-targeting visualizable hyaluronate nanogel for synchronized intracellular release of doxorubicin and cisplatin in combating multidrug-resistant breast cancer

Enhancing Magnetic Hyperthermia Efficacy through Targeted Heat Shock Protein 90 Inhibition: Unveiling Immune-Mediated Therapeutic Synergy in Glioma Treatment

The induction of heat stress response (HSR) mediated by the generation of heat shock proteins (HSPs) on exposure to magnetic hyperthermia-mediated cancer therapy (MHCT) decreases the efficacy of localized heat treatment at the tumor site, and thus therapy remains a significant challenge. Hence, the present study examined differential HSR elicited in glioma cells post-MHCT under different tumor microenvironment conditions (2D monolayers, 3D monoculture, and coculture spheroids) to recognize target genes that, when downregulated, could enhance the therapeutic effect of MHCT. Gene expression analysis following MHCT revealed that HSP90 was upregulated as compared to HSP70. Hence, to enhance the efficacy of the treatment, a combinatorial strategy using 17-DMAG as an inhibitor of HSP90 following MHCT was investigated. The effects of combinatorial therapy in terms of cell viability, HSP levels by immunofluorescence and gene expression analysis, oxidative stress generation, and alterations in cellular integrity were evaluated, where combinatorial therapy demonstrated an enhanced therapeutic outcome with maximum glioma cell death. Further, in the murine glioma model, a rapid tumor inhibition of 65 and 53% was observed within 8 days at the primary and secondary tumor sites, respectively, in the MCHT + 17-DMAG group, with abscopal effect-mediated complete tumor inhibition at both the tumor sites within 20 days of MHCT. The extracellularly released HSP90 from dying tumor cells further suggested the induction of immune response supported by the upregulation of IFN-γ and calreticulin genes in the MHCT + 17-DMAG group. Overall, our findings indicate that MHCT activates host immune systems and efficiently cooperates with the HSP90 blockade to inhibit the growth of distant metastatic tumors.

Nanodrugs based on co-delivery strategies to combat cisplatin resistance

Cisplatin (CDDP), as a broad-spectrum anticancer drug, is able to bind to DNA and inhibit cell division. Despite the widespread use of cisplatin since its discovery, cisplatin resistance developed during prolonged chemotherapy, similar to other small molecule chemotherapeutic agents, severely limits its clinical application. Cisplatin resistance in cancer cells is mainly caused by three reasons: DNA repair, decreased cisplatin uptake/increased efflux, and cisplatin inactivation. In earlier combination therapies, the emergence of multidrug resistance (MDR) in cancer cells prevented the achievement of the desired therapeutic effect even with the accurate combination of two chemotherapeutic drugs. Therefore, combination therapy using nanocarriers for co-delivery of drugs is considered to be ideal for alleviating cisplatin resistance and reducing cisplatin-related toxicity in cancer cells. This article provides an overview of the design of cisplatin nano-drugs used to combat cancer cell resistance, elucidates the mechanisms of action of cisplatin and the pathways through which cancer cells develop resistance, and finally discusses the design of drugs and related carriers that can synergistically reduce cancer resistance when combined with cisplatin.

A platinum(IV)-artesunate complex triggers ferroptosis by boosting cytoplasmic and mitochondrial lipid peroxidation to enhance tumor immunotherapy

Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent cell death form that initiates lipid peroxidation (LPO) in tumors. In recent years, there has been growing interest on ferroptosis, but how to propel it forward translational medicine remains in mist. Although experimental ferroptosis inducers such as RSL3 and erastin have demonstrated bioactivity in vitro, the poor antitumor outcome in animal model limits their development. In this study, we reveal a novel ferroptosis inducer, oxaliplatin-artesunate (OART), which exhibits substantial bioactivity in vitro and vivo, and we verify its feasibility in cancer immunotherapy. For mechanism, OART induces cytoplasmic and mitochondrial LPO to promote tumor ferroptosis, via inhibiting glutathione-mediated ferroptosis defense system, enhancing iron-dependent Fenton reaction, and initiating mitochondrial LPO. The destroyed mitochondrial membrane potential, disturbed mitochondrial fusion and fission, as well as downregulation of dihydroorotate dehydrogenase mutually contribute to mitochondrial LPO. Consequently, OART enhances tumor immunogenicity by releasing damage associated molecular patterns and promoting antigen presenting cells maturation, thereby transforming tumor environment from immunosuppressive to immunosensitive. By establishing in vivo model of tumorigenesis and lung metastasis, we verified that OART improves the systematic immune response. In summary, OART has enormous clinical potential for ferroptosis-based cancer therapy in translational medicine.

Co-assembly of cisplatin and dasatinib in hyaluronan nanogel to combat triple negative breast cancer with reduced side effects

Treatment for triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) remains a huge challenge due to the lack of targeted therapeutics and tumor heterogenicity. Cisplatin (Cis) have demonstrated favorable therapeutic response in TNBC and thus is used together with various kinase inhibitors to fight the heterogenicity of TNBC. The combination of Cis with SRC inhibitor dasatinib (DAS) has shown encouraging anti-TNBC efficacy although the additive toxicity was commonly observed. To overcome the severe side effects of this Cis involved therapy, here we co-encapsulated Cis and DAS into a self-assembled hyaluronan (HA) nanogel (designated as HA/Cis/DAS (HCD) nanogel) to afford the TNBC targeted delivery by using the 4T1 mouse model. The acquired HCD nanogel was around 181 nm in aqueous solution, demonstrating the pharmacological activities of both Cis and DAS. Taking advantages of HA's targeting capability towards CD44 that is overexpressed on many TNBC cells, the HCD could well maintain the anticancer efficacy of the Cis and DAS combination, significantly increase the maximum tolerated dose and relieve the renal toxicity in vivo. The current HCD nanogel provides a potent strategy to improve the therapeutic outcome of Cis and DAS combination and thus representing a new targeted treatment option for TNBC.

Synthesis and Characterization of Graphene Oxide/Polyethylene Glycol/Folic Acid/Brucine Nanocomposites and Their Anticancer Activity on HepG2 Cells

Background

Liver cancer is the sixth most prevalent form of cancer and the second major cause of cancer-associated mortalities worldwide. Cancer nanotechnology has the ability to fundamentally alter cancer treatment, diagnosis, and detection.

Objective

In this study, we explained the development of graphene oxide/polyethylene glycol/folic acid/brucine nanocomposites (GO/PEG/Bru-FA NCs) and evaluated their antimicrobial and anticancer effect on the liver cancer HepG2 cells.

Methodology

The GO/PEG/Bru-FA NCs were prepared using the co-precipitation technique and characterized using various techniques. The cytotoxicity of the GO/PEG/Bru-FA NCs was tested against both liver cancer HepG2 and non-malignant Vero cells using an MTT assay. The antimicrobial activity of the GO/PEG/Bru-FA NCs was tested against several pathogens using the well diffusion technique. The effects of GO/PEG/Bru-FA NCs on endogenous ROS accumulation, apoptosis, and MMP levels were examined using corresponding fluorescent staining assays, respectively. The apoptotic protein expressions, such as Bax, Bcl-2, and caspases, were studied using the corresponding kits.

Results

The findings of various characterization assays revealed the development of GO/PEG/Bru-FA NCs with face-centered spherical morphology and an agglomerated appearance with an average size of 197.40 nm. The GO/PEG/Bru-FA NCs treatment remarkably inhibited the growth of the tested pathogens. The findings of the MTT assay evidenced that the GO/PEG/Bru-FA NCs effectively reduced the HepG2 cell growth while not showing toxicity to the Vero cells. The findings of the fluorescent assay proved that the GO/PEG/Bru-FA NCs increased ROS generation, reduced MMP levels, and promoted apoptosis in the HepG2 cells. The levels of Bax, caspase-9, and -3 were increased, and Bcl-2 was reduced in the GO/PEG/Bru-FA NCs-treated HepG2 cells.

Conclusion

The results of this work demonstrate that GO/PEG/Bru-FA NCs suppress viability and induce apoptosis in HepG2 cells, indicating their potential as an anticancer candidate.

Exploring the chondroitin sulfate nanogel's potential in combating nephrotoxicity induced by cisplatin and doxorubicin-An in-vivo study on rats

In this study, we aim to unveil the potential of itaconyl chondroitin sulfate nanogel (ICSNG) in tackling chronic kidney diseases triggered by the administration of CDDP and doxorubicin (Adriamycin, ADR). To that end, the new drug delivery system (ICSNG) was initially prepared, characterized, and loaded with the target drugs. Thereafter, the in-vivo studies were performed using five equally divided groups of 100 male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats. Biochemical evaluation and immunohistochemistry studies have revealed the renal toxicity and the ameliorative effects of ICSNG on renal function. When ICSNG-based treatments were contrasted with the CDDP and ADR infected groups, they significantly increased paraoxonase-1 (PON-1), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and albumin activity and significantly decreased nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), creatinine, urea, and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) activity (p < 0.001). The findings of the current study imply that ICSNG may be able to lessen renal inflammation and damage in chronic kidney disorders brought on by the administration of CDDP and ADR. Interestingly, according to the estimated selectivity indices, the ICSNG-encapsulated drugs have demonstrated superior selectivity for cancer MCF-7 cells, over healthy HSF cells, in comparison to the bare drugs.

Esculetin Alleviates IL-1β-Evoked Nucleus Pulposus Cell Death, Extracellular Matrix Remodeling, and Inflammation by Activating Nrf2/HO-1/NF-kb

Inflammation, extracellular matrix metabolic dysfunction, and oxidative stress are key pathogenic characteristics of intervertebral disk degeneration (IVDD), a major pathogenic cause of low back pain. Esculetin possesses anti-injury, anti-inflammation, and antinociceptive properties. This study aimed to explore its role in IVDD. In this research, esculetin exhibited little cytotoxicity to human nucleus pulposus cells (NPCs). Moreover, esculetin increased cell viability under IL-1β stimulation but attenuated IL-1β-induced cell apoptosis and caspase-3 activity. Furthermore, IL-1β-evoked increases in intracellular reactive oxygen species and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, and decreases in superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity were reversed after esculetin treatment, indicating the antioxidative stress efficacy of esculetin. Esculetin alleviated the inhibitory effects of IL-1β on the transcription and protein expression of anabolic biomarkers (collagen II and aggrecan), accompanied by decreases in expression and release of catabolic biomarkers MMP-3 and MMP-13 from NPCs. Moreover, IL-1β exposure enhanced the expression levels of the inflammatory mediator nitric oxide and inflammatory cytokine IL-6 and TNF-α, which were overturned after esculetin treatment. Additionally, esculetin activated the nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2)/heme oxygenase 1 (HO-1) to inhibit the activation of nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) signaling in NPCs. Importantly, suppression of Nrf2 signaling reversed the protective efficacy of esculetin against IL-1β-mediated oxidative injury, matrix metabolism disruption, and inflammatory response in NPCs. Together, esculetin may alleviate IL-1β-induced dysfunction in NPCs by regulating the Nrf2/HO-1/NF-kb signaling, indicating its potential as a promising therapeutic agent against IVDD.

Asymmetric aza-BODIPY photosensitizer for photoacoustic/photothermal imaging-guided synergistic photodynamic/photothermal therapy

Cancer synergistic therapy usually shows improved therapeutic efficacy with low side effects. In this contribution, an aza-BODIPY-derived photosensitizer NBDP with asymmetric structure and the periphery phenyl ring modified with bromine atom was designed and synthesized for synergistic photothermal therapy (PTT) and photodynamic therapy (PDT). Photosensitizer NBDP exhibited good singlet oxygen (1O2) generation capacity (1.43 times higher than that of ICG), and NBDP NPs showed an outstanding photothermal conversion efficiency (η) of 46.0% under 660 nm photoirradiation. Guided by in vivo photoacoustic (PA) imaging, NBDP NPs were found to targetedly accumulate in the tumor tissues in 6 h. All results showed that the aza-BODIPY-derived photosensitizer NBDP had great potential for PA/photothermal imaging-guided synergistic PTT/PDT.

Exploiting targeted nanomedicine for surveillance, diagnosis, and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the cancers that has the highest morbidity and mortality rates. In clinical practice, there are still many limitations in surveilling, diagnosing, and treating HCC, such as the poor detection of early HCC, the frequent post-surgery recurrence, the low local tumor control rate, the therapy resistance and side effects. Therefore, improved, or innovative modalities are urgently required for early diagnosis as well as refined and effective management. In recent years, nanotechnology research in the field of HCC has received great attention, with various aspects of diagnosis and treatment including biomarkers, ultrasound, diagnostic imaging, intraoperative imaging, ablation, transarterial chemoembolization, radiotherapy, and systemic therapy. Different from previous reviews that discussed from the perspective of nanoparticles' structure, design and function, this review systematically summarizes the methods and limitations of diagnosing and treating HCC in clinical guidelines and practices, as well as nanomedicine applications. Nanomedicine can overcome the limitations to improve diagnosis accuracy and therapeutic effect via enhancement of targeting, biocompatibility, bioavailability, controlled releasing, and combination of different clinical treatment modalities. Through an in-depth understanding of the logic of nanotechnology to conquer clinical limitations, the main research directions of nanotechnology in HCC are sorted out in this review. It is anticipated that nanomedicine will play a significant role in the future clinical practices of HCC.

Breaking Tumor Immunosuppressive Network by Regulating Multiple Nodes with Triadic Drug Delivery Nanoparticles

Inside the tumor microenvironment, a complicated immunosuppressive network is constituted by tumor cells and suppressive immune cells as its nodes, including myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), and regulatory T cells, which have mutual promotion on each other and superimposed inhibition on natural killer (NK) cells and cytotoxic T cells. Breaking the whole balance of this web is critical to tumor immunotherapy since modulation on a single node may be diluted by other factors in the network. To achieve multifaceted regulation on antitumor immunity against triple-negative breast cancer, in this work, a micelle, termed BEM, co-delivering the MDSC inhibitor, entinostat (ENT), and the immune checkpoint inhibitor, BMS-1, was constructed with pH-sensitive amphiphilic poly(β-amino ester) derivatives. Then, BEM and the scavenger receptor A (SR-A) ligand dextran sulfate (DXS) formed a negatively charged nanoparticle (BEN). DXS detached from BEN in the weakly acidic tumor microenvironment and blocked SR-A on TAMs, reprogramming TAMs toward the M1 type. The positively charged BEM with facilitated intratumoral penetration and cellular uptake dissociated in the lysosomes, accompanied by the release of ENT and BMS-1 to suppress MDSCs and block the programmed cell death protein (PD)-1/PD-ligand 1 pathway, respectively. As a result, NK cells and CD8+ T cells in tumors were increased, as were their effector cytokines. The activated innate and adaptive antitumor immune responses suppressed the growth and metastasis of tumors and prolonged survival of 4T1 tumor-bearing mice. BEN provides a reliable approach for improving cancer immunotherapy by destroying the immunosuppression web in tumors via multinode regulation.

Microalgae Microneedle Supplies Oxygen for Antiphotoaging Treatment

UV exposure often triggers photoaging of the skin. Pharmacological treatment suffers from severe side effects as well as poor efficacy because of insufficient skin penetration. Dissolved oxygen has been previously shown to reverse photoaged skin; however, the treatment is often limited by the availability of equipment (e.g., high-pressure oxygen). Poor oxygen diffusion into the skin has also limited its therapeutic efficacy. Herein, we developed a microneedle patch to deliver living microalgae to the deeper layers of the skin for efficient oxygenation and reversal of photoaging. The continuous release of oxygen from microalgae in the skin through photosynthesis reversed the inflammatory microenvironment and reduced reactive oxygen species levels in the photodamaged skin, leading to collagen regeneration and reduced wrinkles. This study provides not only a means for highly efficient skin oxygenation and reversal of photoaging but also an important theoretical basis for the clinical treatment of photoaging.

Recent Advances of Platinum-Based Anticancer Complexes in Combinational Multimodal Therapy

Platinum drugs with manifest therapeutic effects are widely used, but their systemic toxicity and the drug resistance acquired by cancer cells limit their clinical applications. Thus, the exploration on appropriate methods and strategies to overcome the limitations of traditional platinum drugs becomes extremely necessary. Combination therapy of platinum drugs can inhibit tumor growth and metastasis in an additive or synergistic manner, and can potentially reduce the systemic toxicity of platinum drugs and overcome platinum-resistance. This review summarizes the various modalities and current progress in platinum-based combination therapy. The synthetic strategies and therapeutic effects of some platinum-based anticancer complexes in the combination of platinum drugs with gene editing, ROS-based therapy, thermal therapy, immunotherapy, biological modelling, photoactivation, supramolecular self-assembly and imaging modality are briefly described. Their potential challenges and prospects are also discussed. It is hoped that this review will inspire researchers to have more ideas for the future development of highly effective platinum-based anti-cancer complexes.

Impact of Poly(Ester Amide) Structure on Properties and Drug Delivery for Prostate Cancer Therapy

Objective: We aim to develop a polymer library consisting of phenylalanine-based poly(ester amide)s (Phe-PEAs) for cancer therapy and investigate the structure-property relationship of these polymers to understand their impact on the drug delivery efficiency of corresponding nanoparticles (NPs). Impact Statement: Our study provides insights into the structure-property relationship of polymers in NP-based drug delivery applications and offers a potential polymer library and NP platform for enhancing cancer therapy. Introduction: Polymer NP-based drug delivery systems have demonstrated substantial potential in cancer therapy by improving drug efficacy and minimizing systemic toxicity. However, successful design and optimization of these systems require a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between polymer structure and physicochemical properties, which directly influence the drug delivery efficiency of the corresponding NPs. Methods: A series of Phe-PEAs with tunable structures was synthesized by varying the length of the methylene group in the diol part of the polymers. Subsequently, Phe-PEAs were formulated into NPs for doxorubicin (DOX) delivery in prostate cancer therapy. Results: Small adjustments in polymer structure induced the changes in the hydrophobicity and thermal properties of the PEAs, consequently NP size, drug loading capacity, cellular uptake efficacy, and cytotoxicity. Additionally, DOX-loaded Phe-PEA NPs demonstrated enhanced tumor suppression and reduced side effects in prostate tumor-bearing mice. Conclusion: Phe-PEAs, with their finely tunable structures, show great promise as effective and customizable nanocarriers for cancer therapy.

Ciprofloxacin Derivative-Loaded Nanoparticles Synergize with Paclitaxel Against Type II Human Endometrial Cancer

Combinations of chemotherapeutic agents comprise a clinically feasible approach to combat cancers that possess resistance to treatment. Type II endometrial cancer is typically associated with poor outcomes and the emergence of chemoresistance. To overcome this challenge, a combination therapy is developed comprising a novel ciprofloxacin derivative-loaded PEGylated polymeric nanoparticles (CIP2b-NPs) and paclitaxel (PTX) against human type-II endometrial cancer (Hec50co with loss of function p53). Cytotoxicity studies reveal strong synergy between CIP2b and PTX against Hec50co, and this is associated with a significant reduction in the IC50 of PTX and increased G2/M arrest. Upon formulation of CIP2b into PEGylated polymeric nanoparticles, tumor accumulation of CIP2b is significantly improved compared to its soluble counterpart; thus, enhancing the overall antitumor activity of CIP2b when co-administered with PTX. In addition, the co-delivery of CIP2b-NPs with paclitaxel results in a significant reduction in tumor progression. Histological examination of vital organs and blood chemistry was normal, confirming the absence of any apparent off-target toxicity. Thus, in a mouse model of human endometrial cancer, the combination of CIP2b-NPs and PTX exhibits superior therapeutic activity in targeting human type-II endometrial cancer.

Microfluidic fabrication of X-ray-visible sodium hyaluronate microspheres for embolization

Catheter embolization is a minimally invasive technique that relies on embolic agents and is now widely used to treat various high-prevalence medical diseases. Embolic agents usually need to be combined with exogenous contrasts to visualize the embolotherapy process. However, the exogenous contrasts are quite simply washed away by blood flow, making it impossible to monitor the embolized location. To solve this problem, a series of sodium hyaluronate (SH) loaded with bismuth sulfide (Bi₂S₃) nanorods (NRs) microspheres (Bi₂S₃@SH) were prepared in this study by using 1,4-butaneglycol diglycidyl ether (BDDE) as a crosslinker through single-step microfluidics. Bi₂S₃@SH-1 microspheres showed the best performance among other prepared microspheres. The fabricated microspheres had uniform size and good dispersibility. Furthermore, the introduction of Bi₂S₃ NRs synthesized by a hydrothermal method as Computed Tomography (CT) contrast agents improved the mechanical properties of Bi₂S₃@SH-1 microspheres and endowed the microspheres with excellent X-ray impermeability. The blood compatibility and cytotoxicity test showed that the Bi₂S₃@SH-1 microspheres had good biocompatibility. In particular, the in vitro simulated embolization experiment results indicate that the Bi₂S₃@SH-1 microspheres had excellent embolization effect, especially for the small-sized blood vessels of 500-300 and 300 μm. The results showed the prepared Bi₂S₃@SH-1 microspheres have good biocompatibility and mechanical properties, as well as certain X-ray visibility and excellent embolization effects. We believe that the design and combination of this material has good guiding significance in the field of embolotherapy.

Nanogels for bone tissue engineering - from synthesis to application

Nanogels are cross-linked hydrogel nanoparticles with a three-dimensional, tunable porous structure that merges the best features of hydrogels and nanoparticles, including the ability to retain their hydrated nature and to swell and shrink in response to environmental changes. Nanogels have attracted increasing attention for use in bone tissue engineering as scaffolds for growth factor transport and cell adhesion. Their three-dimensional structures allow the encapsulation of a wide range of hydrophobic and hydrophilic drugs, enhance their half-life, and impede their enzymatic breakdown in vivo. Nanogel-based scaffolds are a viable treatment modality for enhanced bone regeneration. They act as carriers for cells and active ingredients capable of controlled release, enhanced mechanical support, and osteogenesis for enhanced bone tissue regeneration. However, the development of such nanogel constructs might involve combinations of several biomaterials to fabricate active ingredients that can control release, enhance mechanical support, and facilitate osteogenesis for more effective bone tissue regeneration. Hence, this review aims to highlight the potential of nanogel-based scaffolds to address the needs of bone tissue engineering.

Versatile delivery platform for nucleic acids, negatively charged protein drugs, and genome-editing ribonucleoproteins using a multi-step transformable polyrotaxane

Various biopharmaceuticals, such as nucleic acids, proteins, and genome-editing molecules, have been developed. Generally, carriers are prepared for each biopharmaceutical to deliver it intracellularly; thus, the applications of individual carriers are limited. Moreover, the development of carriers is laborious and expensive. Therefore, in the present study, versatile and universal delivery carriers were developed for various biopharmaceuticals using aminated polyrotaxane libraries. Step-by-step and logical screening revealed that aminated polyrotaxane, including the carbamate bond between the axile molecule and endcap, is suitable as a backbone polymer. Movable and flexible properties of the amino groups modified on polyrotaxane facilitated efficient complexation with various biopharmaceuticals, such as small interfering RNA, antisense oligonucleotides, messenger RNA, β-galactosidase, and genome-editing ribonucleoproteins. Diethylenetriamine and cystamine modifications of polyrotaxane provided endosomal-escape abilities and drug-release properties in the cytosol, allowing higher delivery efficacies than commercially available high-standard carriers without cytotoxicity. Thus, the resulting polyrotaxane might serve as a versatile and universal delivery platform for various biopharmaceuticals.

Chitosan-based nanoscale delivery systems in hepatocellular carcinoma: Versatile bio-platform with theranostic application

The field of nanomedicine has provided a fresh approach to cancer treatment by addressing the limitations of current therapies and offering new perspectives on enhancing patients' prognoses and chances of survival. Chitosan (CS) is isolated from chitin that has been extensively utilized for surface modification and coating of nanocarriers to improve their biocompatibility, cytotoxicity against tumor cells, and stability. HCC is a prevalent kind of liver tumor that cannot be adequately treated with surgical resection in its advanced stages. Furthermore, the development of resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy has caused treatment failure. The targeted delivery of drugs and genes can be mediated by nanostructures in treatment of HCC. The current review focuses on the function of CS-based nanostructures in HCC therapy and discusses the newest advances of nanoparticle-mediated treatment of HCC. Nanostructures based on CS have the capacity to escalate the pharmacokinetic profile of both natural and synthetic drugs, thus improving the effectiveness of HCC therapy. Some experiments have displayed that CS nanoparticles can be deployed to co-deliver drugs to disrupt tumorigenesis in a synergistic way. Moreover, the cationic nature of CS makes it a favorable nanocarrier for delivery of genes and plasmids. The use of CS-based nanostructures can be harnessed for phototherapy. Additionally, the incur poration of ligands including arginylglycylaspartic acid (RGD) into CS can elevate the targeted delivery of drugs to HCC cells. Interestingly, smart CS-based nanostructures, including ROS- and pH-sensitive nanoparticles, have been designed to provide cargo release at the tumor site and enhance the potential for HCC suppression.

A propitious role of marine sourced polysaccharides: Drug delivery and biomedical applications

Numerous compounds, with extensive applications in biomedical and biotechnological fields, are present in the oceans, which serve as a prime renewable source of natural substances, further promoting the development of novel medical systems and devices. Polysaccharides are present in the marine ecosystem in abundance, promoting minimal extraction costs, in addition to their solubility in extraction media, and an aqueous solvent, along with their interactions with biological compounds. Certain algae-derived polysaccharides include fucoidan, alginate, and carrageenan, while animal-derived polysaccharides comprise hyaluronan, chitosan and many others. Furthermore, these compounds can be modified to facilitate their processing into multiple shapes and sizes, as well as exhibit response dependence to external conditions like temperature and pH. All these properties have promoted the use of these biomaterials as raw materials for the development of drug delivery carrier systems (hydrogels, particles, capsules). The present review enlightens marine polysaccharides providing its sources, structures, biological properties, and its biomedical applications. In addition to this, their role as nanomaterials is also portrayed by the authors, along with the methods employed to develop them and associated biological and physicochemical properties designed to develop suitable drug delivery systems.

Preparation and physicochemical properties of cisplatin and doxorubicin encapsulated by niosome alginate nanocarrier for cancer therapy

Alginate (AL), in the form of a hydrogel, is extensively used in drug delivery. In the current study, an optimum formulation of alginate-coated niosome-based nanocarriers for co-delivery of doxorubicin (Dox) and cisplatin (Cis) was obtained for the treatment of breast and ovarian cancers in an attempt to decrease drug doses and overcome multidrug resistance. The physiochemical characteristics of uncoated niosomes containing Cis and Dox (Nio-Cis-Dox) compared to alginate-coated niosomes formulation (Nio-Cis-Dox-AL). The three-level Box-Behnken method was examined to optimize the particle size, polydispersity index, entrapment efficacy (%), and percent drug release of nanocarriers. Nio-Cis-Dox-AL showed appropriate encapsulation efficiencies of 65.54 ± 1.25 % and 80.65 ± 1.80 % for Cis and Dox, respectively. Maximum drug release decreased from niosomes in case coated by alginate. Also, the zeta potential value of Nio-Cis-Dox nanocarriers decreased after coating with alginate. In vitro cellular and molecular experiments were performed to investigate the anticancer activity of Nio-Cis-Dox and Nio-Cis-Dox-AL. MTT assay showed the IC₅₀ of Nio-Cis-Dox-AL was much lower than the Nio-Cis-Dox formulations and free drugs. Cellular and molecular assays demonstrated that Nio-Cis-Dox-AL caused significant increase in apoptosis induction rate and cell cycle arrest in MCF-7 and A2780 cancer cells, as compared to Nio-Cis-Dox and free drugs. Also, the Caspase 3/7 activity increased after treatment with coated niosomes compared to uncoated nisomes and the drug-free case. Synergetic cell proliferation inhibitory impacts of Cis and Dox were demonstrated against MCF-7 and A2780 cancer cells. All anticancer experimental data demonstrated that the co-delivery of Cis and Dox through alginate-coated niosomal nanocarriers was effective for ovarian and breast cancer treatment.

Fluorinated carboxymethyl chitosan-based nano-prodrugs for precisely synergistic chemotherapy

The clinical transformation of polysaccharide-based nano-prodrugs remains a long way off, due to the shackles on easy metabolic clearance, dilemma of dose-dependent toxicity and immunogenicity, and poor tumor selectivity. To address these challenges, the fluorinated dual-crosslinked carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCS)-based nano-prodrugs with precise structure were facilely developed through the reaction of CMCS with water-soluble stimuli-responsive synergistic small molecule prodrug (Pt(IV)-1), glutaraldehyde and heptafluorobutyric anhydride successively. The fluorination enabled the nano-prodrugs to display metabolic stability and improve tumoral cellular uptake. The pH/glutathione (GSH)-sensitive dual-crosslinked structure enabled the nano-prodrugs to show physicochemical stability at physiological pH, selective drug release and synergistic cytotoxicity at tumoral intracellular pH/GSH, and circumventing the dilemma of dose-dependent toxicity and immunogenicity induced by that crosslinked or grafted via a single drug. These superior performances promoted stability in long-term storage and circulation, normal blood routine and aminotransferase, fantastic hemocompatibility, selective tumor accumulation and precisely synergistic chemotherapy, therefore achieving significant tumor growth inhibition while minimizing side effects. Thus, the precise fluorinated dual-crosslinked CMCS-based nano-prodrugs have great potential for selective clinical cancer treatment.

Investigation of mitochondrial targeting ability of sydnones and sydnonimines and mitochondria-targeted delivery of celecoxib

Mitochondria are considered to be a promising target in cancer diagnosis and therapeutics. Recently, sydnone and sydnonimine, as mesoionic bioorthogonal reagents, have been used in cell labeling and drug delivery. Here we investigated the mitochondrial targeting ability of sydnones and sydnonimines for the first time. Experimental results show that sydnone and sydnonimine themselves have high mitochondrial distribution. However, the introduction of a phenyl group into the C₄ position of sydnone dramatically decreases the mitochondrial affinity. In addition, we took advantage of mitochondrial targeting ability and click-and-release reaction of sydnonimine to evaluate anticancer activities of in-mitochondria delivery of celecoxib against HeLa and HepG2 cells, indicating that celecoxib-induced cancer cell death may not involve mitochondria-related pathway.

Polysaccharide-based nanocarriers for efficient transvascular drug delivery

Polysaccharide-based nanocarriers (PBNs) are the focus of extensive investigation because of their biocompatibility, low cost, wide availability, and chemical versatility, which allow a wide range of anticancer agents to be loaded within the nanocarriers. Similar to other nanocarriers, most PBNs are designed to extravasate out of tumor vessels, depending on the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. However, the EPR effect is compromised in some tumors due to the heterogeneity of tumor structures. Transvascular transport efficacy is decreased by complex blood vessels and condensed tumor stroma. The limited extravasation impedes efficient drug delivery into tumor parenchyma, and thus affects the subsequent tumor accumulation, which hinders the therapeutic effect of PBNs. Therefore, overcoming the biological barriers that restrict extravasation from tumor vessels is of great importance in PBN design. Many strategies have been developed to enhance the EPR effect that involve nanocarrier property regulation and tumor structure remodeling. Moreover, some researchers have proposed active transcytosis pathways that are complementary to the paracellular EPR effect to increase the transvascular extravasation efficiency of PBNs. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in the design of PBNs with enhanced transvascular transport to enable optimization of PBNs in the extravasation of the drug delivery process. We also discuss the obstacles and challenges that need to be addressed to clarify the transendothemial mechanism of PBNs and the potential interactions between extravasation and other drug delivery steps.

Dye-cored polylysine dendrimer as luminescent nanoplatform for imaging-guided anticancer drug delivery

Dendrimers have numerous applications in imaging and drug delivery. Designing a dendrimer diagnostic platform with a well-defined structure and controlled drug delivery is a formidable challenge. Here, we design dendritic polymer-platinum conjugates (G5-PEG-Pt) as pH-responsive nanovesicles for imaging-guided platinum drug delivery. The G5-PEG-Pt have a well-defined structure, intrinsically bright fluorescence, and acid-responsive drug release. The pH-responsive G5-PEG-Pt could rapidly release the platinum drug at acidic pH (5.0) than neutral pH (7.4). The G5-PEG-Pt could enter SKOV-3 human ovarian cancer cells by the endocytosis pathway and exhibited comparative cytotoxicity to free cisplatin. By virtue of the prolonged blood circulation time and the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, a 4.4-fold higher tumor platinum uptake than that of free cisplatin was achieved, potentially enhancing the therapeutic indexes of the platinum drug. Therefore, these pH-responsive platinum and fluorescent dendrimer conjugates are expected to be potent in vivo cancer optical imaging and therapy platforms.

Remodeling the Tumor Microenvironment with Core-Shell Nanosensitizer Featuring Dual-Modal Imaging and Multimodal Therapy for Breast Cancer

To improve the efficiency of radiation therapy (RT) for breast cancer, a designable multifunctional core-shell nanocomposite of FeP@Pt is constructed using Fe(III)-polydopamine (denoted as FeP) as the core and platinum particles (Pt) as the shell. The hybrid structure is further covered with hyaluronic acid (HA) to give the final nanoplatform of FeP@Pt@HA (denoted as FPH). FPH exhibits good biological stability, prolongs blood circulation time, and is simultaneously endowed with tumor-targeting ability. With CD44-mediated endocytosis of HA, FPH can be internalized by cancer cells and activated by the tumor microenvironment (TME). The redox reaction between Fe³⁺ in FPH and endogenous glutathione (GSH) or/and hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) initiates ferroptosis therapy by promoting GSH exhaustion and •OH generation. Moreover, FPH has excellent photothermal conversion efficiency and can absorb near-infrared laser energy to promote the above catalytic reaction as well as to achieve photothermal therapy (PTT). Ferroptosis therapy and PTT are further accompanied by the catalase activity of Pt nanoshells to accelerate O₂ production and the high X-ray attenuation coefficient of Pt for enhanced radiotherapy (RT). Apart from the therapeutic modalities, FPH exhibits dual-modal contrast enhancement in infrared (IR) thermal imaging and computed tomography (CT) imaging, offering potential in imaging-guided cancer therapy. In this article, the nanoplatform can remodel the TME through the production of O₂, GSH- and H₂O₂-depletion, coenhanced PTT, ferroptosis, and RT. This multimodal nanoplatform is anticipated to shed light on the design of TME-activatable materials to enhance the synergism of treatment results and enable the establishment of efficient nanomedicine.

A Cascade Targeted and Mitochondrion-Dysfunctional Nanomedicine Capable of Overcoming Drug Resistance in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Chemoresistance is a formidable issue in clinical anticancer therapy and is pertinent to the lowered efficacies of chemotherapeutics and the activated tumor self-repairing proceedings. Herein, bifunctional amphiphiles containing galactose ligands and high-density disulfide are synthesized for encapsulating mitochondrion-targeting tetravalent platinum prodrugs to construct a cascade targeted and mitochondrion-dysfunctional nanomedicine (Gal-NP@TPt). Subsequent investigations verify that Gal-NP@TPt with sequential targeting functions toward tumors and mitochondria improved the spatiotemporal level of platinum. In addition, glutathione depletion by Gal-NP@TPt appear to substantially inhibit the proceedings of platinum detoxification, inducing the susceptibility to the mitochondrial platinum. Moreover, the strategic transportation of platinum to mitochondria lacking DNA repair machinery by Gal-NP@TPt lowers the possibility of platinum deactivation. Eventually, Gal-NP@TPt demonstrates appreciable antitumor effects for the systemic treatment of patient-derived tumor xenografts of hepatocellular carcinoma. Note that these strategies in overcoming drug resistance have also been confirmed to be valid based on genome-wide analysis via RNA-sequencing. Therefore, an intriguing multifunctional nanomedicine capable of resolving formidable chemoresistance is achieved, which should be greatly emphasized in practical applications for the treatment of intractable tumors.

Tumor microenvironment-regulating nanomedicine design to fight multi-drug resistant tumors

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is a very cunning system that enables tumor cells to escape death post-traditional antitumor treatments through the comprehensive effect of different factors, thereby leading to drug resistance. Deep insights into TME characteristics and tumor resistance encourage the construction of nanomedicines that can remodel the TME against drug resistance. Tremendous interest in combining TME-regulation measurement with traditional tumor treatment to fight multidrug-resistant tumors has been inspired by the increasing understanding of the role of TME reconstruction in improving the antitumor efficiency of drug-resistant tumor therapy. This review focuses on the underlying relationships between specific TME characteristics (such as hypoxia, acidity, immunity, microorganisms, and metabolism) and drug resistance in tumor treatments. The exciting antitumor activities strengthened by TME regulation are also discussed in-depth, providing solutions from the perspective of nanomedicine design. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology.

Biomedicine Innovations and Its Nanohydrogel Classifications

As one of the most cutting-edge and promising polymer crosslinked network nanoparticle systems. Polymer nano-sized hydrogels (nanogels) have been a hot topic in the biomedical field over the last few decades. Due to their unique characteristics, which include their relatively high drug encapsulation efficiency, ease of preparation, high tunability, low toxicity, high stability in serum and responsive behavior to a range of stimuli to facilitate drug release. Nanogels are thought to be the next generation of drug delivery systems that can completely change the way that drug delivery systems have an impact on patients' lives. Nanogels have demonstrated significant potential in a variety of fields, including chemotherapy, diagnosis, organ targeting, and delivery of bioactive molecules of different dimensions. However, the lack of substantial clinical data from nanogels becomes one of the major barriers to translating the nanogel concept into a practical therapeutic application for many disease conditions. In addition, nanogel safety profiles have been the major concern that hinders it advancement to the clinical trial phase. This review aims to emphasize the unique properties of nanogels as delivery systems for a variety of bioactive molecules over other nano-delivery systems. Also, this review attempts to give insight into the recent progress in nanogels as a carrier in the field of nanomedicine to overcome complex biological barriers. Relevant scientific data and clinical rationale for the development and the potential use of nanogel as a carrier for targeted therapeutic interventions are discussed. Finally, the concluding points of this review highlight the importance of understanding the long-term toxicity profile of nanogel within the biological system to fully understand their biocompatibility.

The development of live microorganism-based oxygen shuttles for enhanced hypoxic tumor therapy

Hypoxia is a prominent feature of malignant tumors and contributes to tumor proliferation, metastasis, and drug resistance in various solid tumors. Therefore, improving tumor oxygenation is crucial for curing tumors. To date, multiple strategies, including oxygen delivering and producing materials, have been designed to increase the oxygen concentration in hypoxic tumors. However, the unsustainable supply of oxygen is still the main obstacle, resulting in a suboptimal outcome in treating oxygen-deprived tumors. Thus, a sufficient oxygen supply is highly desirable in the treatment of hypoxic tumors. Photosynthesis, as the main source of oxygen in nature through the conversion of light energy into chemical energy and oxygen, has been widely studied in scientific research. Moreover, photosynthetic microorganisms have been increasingly applied in cancer therapy by increasing oxygenation, which improves the therapeutic effect of oxygen-consuming tumor therapeutic tools such as radiotherapy and photodynamic therapy. In this review, we summarize recent advances in the design and manufacture of live bacteria as oxygen shuttles for a new generation of hypoxic tumor treatment strategies. Finally, current challenges and future directions are also discussed for successfully addressing hypoxic tumor issues.

Redox homeostasis modulation using theranostic AIE nanoparticles results in positive-feedback drug accumulation and enhanced drug penetration to combat drug-resistant cancer

Drug-resistant cancers usually have multiple barriers to compromise the effect of therapies, of which multidrug-resistance (MDR) phenotype as the intracellular barrier and dense tumor matrix as the extracellular barrier, significantly contribute to the poor anticancer performance of current drug delivery systems (DDS). Here in this study, we fabricated a novel aggregation-induced emission (AIE)-active polymer capable of self-assembling into ultrasmall nanoparticles (∼20 ​nm) with D-alpha Tocopheryl Polyethylene Glycol Succinate (TPGS), for dual-encapsulating of doxorubicin (Dox) and sulforaphane (SFN) (AT/Dox/SFN). It revealed that redox homeostasis modulation of MDR cells (MCF-7/Adr) using AT/Dox/SFN can trigger mitochondria damage and ATP deficiency, which reverse the MDR phenotype of MCF-7/Adr cells to afford enhanced cellular uptake of both drug and DDS in a positive-feedback manner. The enhanced cellular drug accumulation further initiates the “neighboring effect” for improved drug penetration. Using this strategy, the growth of in vivo MCF-7/Adr tumors can be effectively inhibited at a low dosage (1/5) of doxorubicin (Dox) as compared to free Dox. In summary, we offer a new approach to overcome both the intracellular and extracellular barriers of drug-resistant cancers and elucidate the potential action mechanisms, which are beneficial for better cancer management.

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Redox homeostasis modulation in MDR cancer cell results in positive-feedback drug accumulation and enhanced drug penetration.

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Mitochondria damage and neighboring effect is responsible for MDR reversal and enhanced drug penetration, respectively.

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AT/Dox/SFN effectively inhibits ​in vivo ​MCF-7/Adr tumors at a low dosage (1/5) of doxorubicin (Dox) as compared to free Dox.

Attachment of −tBu groups to aza-BODIPY core at 3,5-sites with ultra-large Stokes shift to enhance photothermal therapy through apoptosis mechanism

By the introduction of the −tBu groups into aza-BODIPY core, di-tert-butyl-substituted aza-BODIPYs at 3,5-sites (tBuazaBDPs) were prepared for the first time. Based on the X-ray analysis of CN-tBuazaBDP, this molecular structure is twisted. Near-infrared dye SMe-tBuazaBDP has the ultra-large Stokes shift (152 ​nm) in aza-BODIPY system, combining with the twisted intramolecular charge transfer and the free rotation of the −tBu groups at 3,5-sites. Although the barrier-free rotors of the distal −tBu groups in SMe-tBuazaBDP result in low fluorescence quantum yield, the photothermal conversion efficiency is markedly enhanced. SMe-tBuazaBDP nanoparticles with low power laser irradiation were proven to block cancer cell cycle, inhibit cancer cell proliferation, and induce cancer cell apoptosis in photothermal therapy (PTT). The strategy of “direct attachment of −tBu groups to aza-BODIPY core” gives a new design platform for a photothermal therapy agent.

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Di-tert-butyl-substituted aza-BODIPYs at 3,5-sites (tBuazaBDPs) were prepared for the first time.

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Near-infrared dye SMe-tBuazaBDP has the ultra-large Stokes shift (152 ​nm) in aza-BODIPY system.

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SMe-tBuazaBDP ​nanoparticles can photothermally induce apoptosis as a potential photothermal therapy agent.

Apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease triggered doxorubicin-releasing DNA nanoprism for target therapy

Drug delivery and triggered release in tumor cells would realize the ultimate goal of precise cancer treatment. An APE1 triggered DNA nanoprism was designed, aiming at the applications of both drug delivery and precise triggered drug release in cancer cell. We demonstrate that the AP-Prism was successfully used as a vehicle based on the intracellular endogenous enzyme APE1 triggered for controlled drug delivery and triggered release. The box like DNA prism was self-assembled by annealing process and Doxorubicin molecules were then inserted into the GC base pairs. The reaction of AP-Prism enzymolysis and stability of DNA prism were investigated. Encouraged by the demonstration of AP-Prism as a drug delivery carrier, the cellular uptake and Dox release were with investigated in a human cervical cancer cell HeLa and human embryonic kidney cell HEK-293 T. Thanks to the overexpression level of APE1 in cancer cells, DNA prism could selectively release the trapped doxorubicin in response to APE1 activity in cancer cells, and provide a new strategy for the development of precision medicine.

Functional two-dimensional MXenes as cancer theranostic agents

Recently, MXenes, as a kind of two-dimensional (2D) layered materials with exceptional performance, have become the research hotspots owing to their unique structural, electronic, and chemical properties. They have potential applications in electrochemical storage, photocatalysis, and biosensors. Furthermore, they have certain characteristics such as large surface area, favorable biocompatibility, and ideal mechanical properties, which can expand their applications in biomedical fields, especially in cancer therapy. To date, several researchers have explored the applications of MXenes in tumor elimination, which exhibited other fantastic properties of those 2D MXenes, such as efficient in vivo photothermal ablation, low phototoxicity, high biocompatibility, etc. In this review, the structures, properties, modifications, and preparation methods are introduced respectively. More importantly, the multifunctional platforms for cancer therapy based on MXenes nanosheets (NSs) are reviewed in detail, including single-modality and combined-modality cancer therapy. Finally, the prospects and challenges of MXenes are prospected and discussed. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: In this review, the structures, properties, modifications, and preparation methods of MXenes nanomaterials are introduced, respectively. In addition, the preparation conditions and morphological characterizations of some common MXenes for therapeutic platforms are also summarized. More importantly, the practical applications of MXenes-based nanosheets are reviewed in detail, including drug delivery, biosensing, bioimaging, and multifunctional tumor therapy platforms. Finally, the future prospects and challenges of MXenes are prospected and discussed.

Cysteine-phenylalanine-derived self-assembled nanoparticles as glutathione-responsive drug-delivery systems in yeast

Despite the availability of different antifungal drugs in the market, their overall usefulness remains questionable due to the relatively high toxic profiles exerted by them in many cases. In addition, the emergence of drug resistance against these antifungal agents is a matter of concern. Thus, it becomes imperative to explore innovative drug-delivery vehicles to deliver these antifungal drugs for enhanced efficacy, mitigating unwanted side effects and tackling the surge in antifungal resistance. Considering this fact, in this piece of work, we have synthesized stimulus (glutathione)-responsive dipeptide-based self-assembled nanoparticles (NPs) to explore and establish the redox-responsive antifungal drug delivery of a relatively hydrophobic drug, terbinafine (Terb), in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae). The NPs were prepared using a relatively aqueous environment as opposed to other Terb formulations that are administered in mostly non-polar solvents and with limited biocompatibility. The NPs demonstrated an encapsulation efficiency of around 99% for Terb and resulted in complete inhibition of yeast-cell growth at a dose of 200 μg mL^-1 of the drug-loaded formulation. Thus, these biocompatible and aqueous dipeptide-based redox-responsive NPs can offer a promising drug-delivery platform to provide enhanced antifungal drug delivery with heightened efficacy and biocompatibility.

Engineered multifunctional nanocarriers for controlled drug delivery in tumor immunotherapy

The appearance of chemoresistance in cancer is a major issue. The main barriers to conventional tumor chemotherapy are undesirable toxic effects and multidrug resistance. Cancer nanotherapeutics were developed to get around the drawbacks of conventional chemotherapy. Through clinical evaluation of thoughtfully developed nano delivery systems, cancer nanotherapeutics have recently offered unmatched potential to comprehend and combat drug resistance and toxicity. In different design approaches, including passive targeting, active targeting, nanomedicine, and multimodal nanomedicine combination therapy, were successful in treating cancer in this situation. Even though cancer nanotherapy has achieved considerable technological development, tumor biology complexity and heterogeneity and a lack of full knowledge of nano-bio interactions remain important hurdles to future clinical translation and commercialization. The recent developments and advancements in cancer nanotherapeutics utilizing a wide variety of nanomaterial-based platforms to overcome cancer treatment resistance are covered in this article. Additionally, an evaluation of different nanotherapeutics-based approaches to cancer treatment, such as tumor microenvironment targeted techniques, sophisticated delivery methods for the precise targeting of cancer stem cells, as well as an update on clinical studies are discussed. Lastly, the potential for cancer nanotherapeutics to overcome tumor relapse and the therapeutic effects and targeted efficacies of modern nanosystems are analyzed.

Nanogels as target drug delivery systems in cancer therapy: A review of the last decade

Cancer is an important cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide, irrespective of the level of human development. Globally, it was estimated that there were 19.3 million new cases of cancer and almost 10 million deaths from cancer in 2020. The importance of prevention, early detection as well as effective cancer therapies cannot be over-emphasized. One of the important strategies in cancer therapy is targeted drug delivery to the specific tumor sites. Nanogels are among the several drug delivery systems (DDS) being explored as potential candidates for targeted drug delivery in cancer therapy. Nanogels, which are new generation, versatile DDS with the possession of dual characteristics of hydrogels and nanoparticles have shown great potential as targeted DDS in cancer therapy. Nanogels are hydrogels with a three-dimensional (3D) tunable porous structure and a particle size in the nanometre range, from 20 to 200 nm. They have been visualized as ideal DDS with enormous drug loading capacity, and high stability. Nanogels can be modified to achieve active targeting and enhance drug accumulation in disease sites. They can be designed to be stimulus-responsive, and react to internal or external stimuli such as pH, temperature, light, redox, thus resulting in the controlled release of loaded drug. This prevents drug accumulation in non-target tissues and minimizes the side effects of the drug. Drugs with severe adverse effects, short circulation half-life, and easy degradability by enzymes, such as anti-cancer drugs, and proteins, are suitable for delivery by chemically cross-linked or physically assembled nanogel systems. This systematic review summarizes the evolution of nanogels for targeted drug delivery for cancer therapy over the last decade. On-going clinical trials and recent applications of nanogels as targeted DDS for cancer therapy will be discussed in detail. The review will be concluded with discussions on safety and regulatory considerations as well as future research prospects of nanogel-targeted drug delivery for cancer therapy.

Hydrogel beads based on carboxymethyl cassava starch/alginate enriched with MgFe2O4 nanoparticles for controlling drug release

Implementing novel oral drug delivery systems with controlled drug release behavior is valuable in cancer therapy. Herein, a green synthetic approach based on the sol-gel technique was adopted to prepare MgFe₂O₄ nanoparticles at different calcination temperatures using citric acid as a chelating/combustion agent. In this context, pH-responsive and magnetic carboxymethyl starch/alginate hydrogel beads (CMCS-SA) containing the MgFe₂O₄ nanoparticles were developed as potential drug carriers for the anticancer drug (Doxorubicin, Dox) release in simulated gastrointestinal fluids. Furthermore, in vitro release behaviors validated that these beads illustrated excellent stability in the simulated stomach liquids. In contrast, the data in simulated intestinal fluids showed sustained release of Dox because of their pH-sensitive swelling characteristics. Notably, applying an external magnetic field (EMF) could accelerate drug release from the beads. The in vitro release of drugs from gel beads was mainly accomplished by a combination of diffusion, swelling and erosion. Moreover, the cell cytotoxicity test and laser confocal results showed no harmful effects on normal cells (3T3) but were significant cytotoxic to colon cancer cell lines (HCT116) by drug-loaded hydrogel beads. Therefore, the prepared gel beads could be qualified as latent platforms for controlling the release of anticancer drugs in cancer treatment.

Hyaluronic Acid within Self-Assembling Nanoparticles: Endless Possibilities for Targeted Cancer Therapy

Self-assembling nanoparticles (SANPs) based on hyaluronic acid (HA) represent unique tools in cancer therapy because they combine the HA targeting activity towards cancer cells with the advantageous features of the self-assembling nanosystems, i.e., chemical versatility and ease of preparation and scalability. This review describes the key outcomes arising from the combination of HA and SANPs, focusing on nanomaterials where HA and/or HA-derivatives are inserted within the self-assembling nanostructure. We elucidate the different HA derivatization strategies proposed for this scope, as well as the preparation methods used for the fabrication of the delivery device. After showing the biological results in the employed in vivo and in vitro models, we discussed the pros and cons of each nanosystem, opening a discussion on which approach represents the most promising strategy for further investigation and effective therapeutic protocol development.

One stone, many birds: Recent advances in functional nanogels for cancer nanotheranostics

Inspired by the development of nanomedicine and nanotechnology, more and more possibilities in cancer theranostic have been provided in the last few years. Emerging therapeutic modalities like starvation therapy, chemodynamic therapy, and tumor oxygenation have been integrated with diagnosis, giving a plethora of theranostic nanoagents. Among all of them, nanogels (NGs) show superiority benefiting from their unique attributes: high stability, high water-absorption, large specific surface area, mechanical strength, controlled responsiveness, and high encapsulation capacity. There have been a vast number of investigations supporting various NGs combining drug delivery and multiple bioimaging techniques, encompassing photothermal imaging, photoacoustic imaging, fluorescent imaging, ultrasound imaging, magnetic resonance imaging, and computed tomography. This review summarizes recent advances in functional NGs for theranostic nanomedicine and discusses the challenges and future perspectives of this fast-growing field. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Oncologic Disease Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Diagnostic Tools > In Vivo Nanodiagnostics and Imaging.

Research on the Construction of Bispecific-Targeted Sustained-Release Drug-Delivery Microspheres and Their Function in Treatment of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Lenvatinib (LEN) is approved as one of the commonly used drugs in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). It is recognized to be a novel therapeutic choice for the direct and targeted delivery of effective drugs to HCC tumor sites. The key to the proposed method lies in the requirement for efficient targeted drug delivery carriers with targeting performance to deliver effective drugs directly and safely to tumor lesions. Methods: Here, magnetic liposomes (MLs) were modified by phosphatidylinositol proteoglycan 3 (GPC3) and epithelial cell adhesion molecules (EpCAMs). Subsequently, bispecific-targeted sustained-release drug-loaded microspheres containing LEN (GPC3/EpCAM-LEN-MLs) were constructed. In addition, both cytotoxicity and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) analyses were performed to establish a mouse model and further perform corresponding performance assessments. Results: The corresponding results showed that GPC3/EpCAM-LEN-MLs were spherical-shaped and evenly dispersed. The encapsulation and drug-loading efficiencies were 91.08% ± 1.83% and 8.22% ± 1.24%, respectively. Meanwhile, GPC3/EpCAM-LEN-MLs showed a high inhibition rate on the proliferation of HCC cells and significantly increased their apoptosis. Furthermore, MRI revealed that the system possessed the function of tracking and localizing tumor cells, and animal experiments verified that it could exert the function of disease diagnosis. Conclusions: Our experiments successfully constructed a safe and efficient bispecific-targeted sustained-release drug delivery system for HCC tumor cells. It provides a useful diagnostic and therapeutic scheme for the clinical diagnosis and targeted therapy of HCC. Moreover, it can be used as a potential tumor-specific MRI contrast agent for the localization and diagnosis of malignant tumors.

Amino acid coordination complex mediates cisplatin entrapment within PEGylated liposome: An implication in colorectal cancer therapy

Cis-Diaminedichloroplatinum (cisplatin, CDDP) remained among the most widely used anti-cancer agents; however, management of the dose-limiting side effects is still a great hurdle to its therapeutic potential. In the framework of this investigation, novel approach was developed for CDDP encasement within liposome based on the formation of a coordination bond between the platinum (II) atom and a carboxylic group in aspartic acid (AA) and glutamic acid (GA). We have also compared two methods of preparation based on equilibration and conventional lipid film hydration. For this, first FTIR spectra of the conjugates confirmed coordination bond between Pt and the carboxylate moieties. The PEGylated liposomes composed of HSPC, cholesterol and DPPG had a size of 134 to 197 nm and negative zeta potential (-14.20 to -20.90 mv). Cytotoxicity study revealed IC₅₀ values of <7 µg/ml for liposomes. In vivo plasma retention following iv administration indicated the potential of liposome in maintaining cisplatin levels within the circulation, while free cisplatin and cisplatin conjugates were promptly eliminated. Anti-tumor efficacy studies following iv injections at 3 mg/kg cisplatin weekly for three weeks in C26 tumor bearing BALB/c mice demonstrated the potential of the cisplatin liposomes in tumor growth inhibition. Pt-complexes were not as effective as liposomal formulations showing the crucial role of liposomes in maintaining cisplatin levels within blood circulation. Overall, the developed cisplatin liposome seems to be a promising therapeutic approach for targeting solid tumors.