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De Vallée A, Dupuy JW, Moriscot C, Gallet B, Vanderperre S, Guignard G, Rascle C, Calvar G, Malbert B, Gillet FX, Dieryckx C, Choquer M, Girard V, Poussereau N, Bruel C. Extracellular Vesicles of the Plant Pathogen Botrytis cinerea. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:jof9040495. [PMID: 37108947 PMCID: PMC10146736 DOI: 10.3390/jof9040495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Fungal secretomes are known to contain a multitude of components involved in nutrition, cell growth or biotic interactions. Recently, extra-cellular vesicles have been identified in a few fungal species. Here, we used a multidisciplinary approach to identify and characterize extracellular vesicles produced by the plant necrotroph Botrytis cinerea. Transmission electron microscopy of infectious hyphae and hyphae grown in vitro revealed extracellular vesicles of various sizes and densities. Electron tomography showed the co-existence of ovoid and tubular vesicles and pointed to their release via the fusion of multi-vesicular bodies with the cell plasma membrane. The isolation of these vesicles and exploration of their protein content using mass spectrometry led to the identification of soluble and membrane proteins involved in transport, metabolism, cell wall synthesis and remodeling, proteostasis, oxidoreduction and traffic. Confocal microscopy highlighted the capacity of fluorescently labeled vesicles to target cells of B. cinerea, cells of the fungus Fusarium graminearum, and onion epidermal cells but not yeast cells. In addition, a specific positive effect of these vesicles on the growth of B. cinerea was quantified. Altogether, this study broadens our view on the secretion capacity of B. cinerea and its cell-to-cell communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amelie De Vallée
- Univ. Lyon, UCBL, INSA Lyon, CNRS, MAP, UMR5240, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | | | | | - Benoit Gallet
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, IBS, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Solène Vanderperre
- Centre Technologique des Microstructures, Université Lyon 1, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Gaëtan Guignard
- Univ. Lyon, Université Lyon 1, CNRS, ENTPE, UMR 5023 LEHNA, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Christine Rascle
- Univ. Lyon, UCBL, INSA Lyon, CNRS, MAP, UMR5240, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Glen Calvar
- Univ. Lyon, UCBL, INSA Lyon, CNRS, MAP, UMR5240, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Bastien Malbert
- Bayer SAS, Crop Science Division Centre de Recherche La Dargoire, 69009 Lyon, France
| | | | - Cindy Dieryckx
- Univ. Lyon, UCBL, INSA Lyon, CNRS, MAP, UMR5240, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Mathias Choquer
- Univ. Lyon, UCBL, INSA Lyon, CNRS, MAP, UMR5240, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Vincent Girard
- Univ. Lyon, UCBL, INSA Lyon, CNRS, MAP, UMR5240, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
| | | | - Christophe Bruel
- Univ. Lyon, UCBL, INSA Lyon, CNRS, MAP, UMR5240, 69622 Villeurbanne, France
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2
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Amatuzzi RF, Zamith-Miranda D, Munhoz da Rocha IF, Lucena ACR, de Toledo Martins S, Streit R, Staats CC, Trentin G, Almeida F, Rodrigues ML, Nosanchuk JD, Alves LR. Caspofungin Affects Extracellular Vesicle Production and Cargo in Candida auris. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:990. [PMID: 36294557 PMCID: PMC9605528 DOI: 10.3390/jof8100990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Antifungal resistance has become more frequent, either due to the emergence of naturally resistant species or the development of mechanisms that lead to resistance in previously susceptible species. Among these fungal species of global threat, Candida auris stands out for commonly being highly resistant to antifungal drugs, and some isolates are pan-resistant. The rate of mortality linked to C. auris infections varies from 28% to 78%. In this study, we characterized C. auris extracellular vesicles (EVs) in the presence of caspofungin, an echinocandin, which is the recommended first line antifungal for the treatment of infections due to this emerging pathogen. Furthermore, we also analyzed the protein and RNA content of EVs generated by C. auris cultivated with or without treatment with caspofungin. We observed that caspofungin led to the increased production of EVs, and treatment also altered the type and quantity of RNA molecules and proteins enclosed in the EVs. There were distinct classes of RNAs in the EVs with ncRNAs being the most identified molecules, and tRNA-fragments (tRFs) were abundant in each of the strains studied. We also identified anti-sense RNAs, varying from 21 to 55 nt in length. The differentially abundant mRNAs detected in EVs isolated from yeast subjected to caspofungin treatment were related to translation, nucleosome core and cell wall. The differentially regulated proteins identified in the EVs produced during caspofungin treatment were consistent with the results observed with the RNAs, with the enriched terms being related to translation and cell wall. Our study adds new information on how an echinocandin can affect the EV pathway, which is associated with the yeast cell being able to evade treatment and persist in the host. The ability of C. auris to efficiently alter the composition of EVs may represent a mechanism for the fungus to mitigate the effects of antifungal agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafaela F. Amatuzzi
- Gene Expression Regulation Laboratory, Carlos Chagas Institute, FIOCRUZ PR, Curitiba 81350-010, Brazil
| | - Daniel Zamith-Miranda
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | | | - Aline C. R. Lucena
- Laboratory for Applied Sciences and Technology in Health, Carlos Chagas Institute, FIOCRUZ PR, Curitiba 81350-010, Brazil
| | - Sharon de Toledo Martins
- Gene Expression Regulation Laboratory, Carlos Chagas Institute, FIOCRUZ PR, Curitiba 81350-010, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Streit
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre 91509-900, Brazil
| | - Charley C. Staats
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia Celular e Molecular, Centro de Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre 91509-900, Brazil
- Departamento de Biologia Molecular e Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre 90010-150, Brazil
| | - Gabriel Trentin
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirao Preto 14040-900, Brazil
| | - Fausto Almeida
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo, Ribeirao Preto 14040-900, Brazil
| | - Marcio L. Rodrigues
- Gene Expression Regulation Laboratory, Carlos Chagas Institute, FIOCRUZ PR, Curitiba 81350-010, Brazil
- Microbiology Institute, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro 21941-901, Brazil
| | - Joshua D. Nosanchuk
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Lysangela R. Alves
- Gene Expression Regulation Laboratory, Carlos Chagas Institute, FIOCRUZ PR, Curitiba 81350-010, Brazil
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3
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Munhoz da Rocha IF, Martins ST, Amatuzzi RF, Zamith-Miranda D, Nosanchuk JD, Rodrigues ML, Alves LR. Cellular and Extracellular Vesicle RNA Analysis in the Global Threat Fungus Candida auris. Microbiol Spectr 2021; 9:e0153821. [PMID: 34908466 PMCID: PMC8672890 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01538-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging and reemerging pathogens are a worldwide concern, and it is predicted that these microbes will cause severe outbreaks. Candida auris affects people with weakened immune systems, particularly those who are hospitalized or are in health care facilities. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayer structures released by organisms from all domains of life. EVs can deliver functional molecules to target cells, including proteins and nucleic acids, especially RNA molecules. EVs from several pathogenic fungi species play diverse biological roles related to cell-cell communication and pathogen-host interaction. In this study, we describe a data set which we produced by sequencing the RNA content of EVs from C. auris under normal growth conditions and in the presence of the antifungal caspofungin, a first-line drug to treat this fungus. To generate a more complete data set for future comparative studies, we also sequenced the RNA cellular content of EVs under the same conditions. This data set addresses a previously unexplored area of fungal biology regarding cellular small RNA and EV RNA. Our data will provide a molecular basis for the study of the aspects associated with antifungal treatment, gene expression response, and EV composition in C. auris. These data will also allow the exploration of small RNA content in the fungal kingdom and might serve as an informative basis for studies on the mechanisms by which molecules are directed to fungal EVs. IMPORTANCE Candida auris, a relevant emerging human-pathogenic yeast, is the first fungus to be called a global public health threat by the WHO. This is because of its rapid spread on all inhabited continents, together with its extremely high frequency of drug and multidrug resistance. In our study, we generated a large data set for 3 distinct strains of C. auris and obtained cellular small RNA fraction as well as extracellular vesicle RNA (EV-RNA) during normal growth conditions and after treatment with caspofungin, the first-line drug used to treat C. auris infection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sharon T. Martins
- Gene Expression Regulation Laboratory, Carlos Chagas Institute, Fiocruz Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Rafaela F. Amatuzzi
- Gene Expression Regulation Laboratory, Carlos Chagas Institute, Fiocruz Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
| | - Daniel Zamith-Miranda
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Joshua D. Nosanchuk
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Marcio L. Rodrigues
- Gene Expression Regulation Laboratory, Carlos Chagas Institute, Fiocruz Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
- Microbiology Institute, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Lysangela R. Alves
- Gene Expression Regulation Laboratory, Carlos Chagas Institute, Fiocruz Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil
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Extracellular Vesicles from Sporothrix Yeast Cells. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2021; 432:35-44. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-83391-6_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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5
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Mencher A, Morales P, Valero E, Tronchoni J, Patil KR, Gonzalez R. Proteomic characterization of extracellular vesicles produced by several wine yeast species. Microb Biotechnol 2020; 13:1581-1596. [PMID: 32578397 PMCID: PMC7415363 DOI: 10.1111/1751-7915.13614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 05/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In winemaking, the use of alternative yeast starters is becoming increasingly popular. They contribute to the diversity and complexity of wine sensory features and are typically used in combination with Saccharomyces cerevisiae, to ensure complete fermentation. This practice has drawn the interest on interactions between different oenological yeasts, which are also relevant in spontaneous and conventional fermentations, or in the vineyard. Although several interactions have been described and some mechanisms have been suggested, the possible involvement of extracellular vesicles (EVs) has not yet been considered. This work describes the production of EVs by six wine yeast species (S. cerevisiae, Torulaspora delbrueckii, Lachancea thermotolerans, Hanseniaspora uvarum, Candida sake and Metschnikowia pulcherrima) in synthetic grape must. Proteomic analysis of EV-enriched fractions from S. cerevisiae and T. delbrueckii showed enrichment in glycolytic enzymes and cell-wall-related proteins. The most abundant protein found in S. cerevisiae, T. delbrueckii and L. thermotolerans EV-enriched fractions was the enzyme exo-1,3-β-glucanase. However, this protein was not involved in the here-observed negative impact of T. delbrueckii extracellular fractions on the growth of other yeast species. These findings suggest that EVs may play a role in fungal interactions during wine fermentation and other aspects of wine yeast biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Mencher
- Instituto de Ciencias de la Vid y del Vino (CSIC, Gobierno de la Rioja, Universidad de La Rioja)Finca La Grajera, Carretera de Burgos, km 6LogroñoLa Rioja26071Spain
| | - Pilar Morales
- Instituto de Ciencias de la Vid y del Vino (CSIC, Gobierno de la Rioja, Universidad de La Rioja)Finca La Grajera, Carretera de Burgos, km 6LogroñoLa Rioja26071Spain
| | - Eva Valero
- Universidad Pablo de OlavideSevillaSpain
| | - Jordi Tronchoni
- Instituto de Ciencias de la Vid y del Vino (CSIC, Gobierno de la Rioja, Universidad de La Rioja)Finca La Grajera, Carretera de Burgos, km 6LogroñoLa Rioja26071Spain
- Present address:
Universidad Internacional de ValenciaValenciaSpain
| | - Kiran Raosaheb Patil
- European Molecular Biology LaboratoryHeidelbergGermany
- The Medical Research Council Toxicology UnitUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - Ramon Gonzalez
- Instituto de Ciencias de la Vid y del Vino (CSIC, Gobierno de la Rioja, Universidad de La Rioja)Finca La Grajera, Carretera de Burgos, km 6LogroñoLa Rioja26071Spain
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Vargas G, Honorato L, Guimarães AJ, Rodrigues ML, Reis FCG, Vale AM, Ray A, Nosanchuk JD, Nimrichter L. Protective effect of fungal extracellular vesicles against murine candidiasis. Cell Microbiol 2020; 22:e13238. [PMID: 32558196 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Revised: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 06/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayered compartments released by virtually all living cells, including fungi. Among the diverse molecules carried by fungal EVs, a number of immunogens, virulence factors and regulators have been characterised. Within EVs, these components could potentially impact disease outcomes by interacting with the host. From this perspective, we previously demonstrated that EVs from Candida albicans could be taken up by and activate macrophages and dendritic cells to produce cytokines and express costimulatory molecules. Moreover, pre-treatment of Galleria mellonella larvae with fungal EVs protected the insects against a subsequent lethal infection with C. albicans yeasts. These data indicate that C. albicans EVs are multi-antigenic compartments that activate the innate immune system and could be exploited as vaccine formulations. Here, we investigated whether immunisation with C. albicans EVs induces a protective effect against murine candidiasis in immunosuppressed mice. Total and fungal antigen-specific serum IgG antibodies increased by 21 days after immunisation, confirming the efficacy of the protocol. Vaccination decreased fungal burden in the liver, spleen and kidney of mice challenged with C. albicans. Splenic levels of cytokines indicated a lower inflammatory response in mice immunised with EVs when compared with EVs + Freund's adjuvant (ADJ). Higher levels of IL-12p70, TNFα and IFNγ were detected in mice vaccinated with EVs + ADJ, while IL-12p70, TGFβ, IL-4 and IL-10 were increased when no adjuvants were added. Full protection of lethally challenged mice was observed when EVs were administered, regardless the presence of adjuvant. Physical properties of the EVs were also investigated and EVs produced by C. albicans were relatively stable after storage at 4, -20 or -80°C, keeping their ability to activate dendritic cells and to protect G. mellonella against a lethal candidiasis. Our data suggest that fungal EVs could be a safe source of antigens to be exploited in vaccine formulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Vargas
- Laboratório de Glicobiologia de Eucariotos, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Leandro Honorato
- Laboratório de Glicobiologia de Eucariotos, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Allan Jefferson Guimarães
- Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Instituto Biomédico, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, Brazil
| | - Marcio L Rodrigues
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Curitiba, Brazil.,Departamento de Microbiologia Geral, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes (IMPG), Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Flavia C G Reis
- Instituto Carlos Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Curitiba, Brazil.,Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Saúde (CDTS), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - André M Vale
- Laboratório de Biologia de Linfócitos, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho - Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Anjana Ray
- Department of Medicine - Hematology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Joshua Daniel Nosanchuk
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Leonardo Nimrichter
- Laboratório de Glicobiologia de Eucariotos, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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7
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Deciphering Fungal Extracellular Vesicles: From Cell Biology to Pathogenesis. CURRENT CLINICAL MICROBIOLOGY REPORTS 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s40588-019-00128-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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8
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Ikeda MAK, de Almeida JRF, Jannuzzi GP, Cronemberger-Andrade A, Torrecilhas ACT, Moretti NS, da Cunha JPC, de Almeida SR, Ferreira KS. Extracellular Vesicles From Sporothrix brasiliensis Are an Important Virulence Factor That Induce an Increase in Fungal Burden in Experimental Sporotrichosis. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:2286. [PMID: 30333803 PMCID: PMC6176056 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2018] [Accepted: 09/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Sporotrichosis is a mycosis that affects the skin, lymphatic system and other organs in humans and animals. The disease has a worldwide distribution, with endemic areas in Brazil, and is caused by a complex of species, including Sporothrix brasiliensis. Some fungi release extracellular vesicles (EVs) that can interact with the host cell and modulate the host immune response. The aim of this study was to analyze the participation of S. brasiliensis EVs in the modulation of dendritic cells (DCs) and in the control of infection in vivo. Our results showed that in vitro, the EVs isolated from S. brasiliensis induced an increase in the phagocytic index and fungal burden in DCs. In addition, we observed a significant increase in IL-12p40 and TNF-α cytokine production. Then, the EVs were inoculated into BALB/c mice before subcutaneous infection with yeast, and the lesion was analyzed after 21, 35, and 42 days. An increase in fungal burden and lesion diameter were observed after 21 days in mice inoculated with a high concentration of EVs. However, after 35 days, we observed a regression of the lesion, which persisted until 42 days after infection. Interestingly, we observed an increase in fungal burden in these mice. In addition, we observed the presence of immunogenic components and proteins that could be related with virulence in EVs. These results suggest that EVs can play an important role in virulence and modulation of the host immune system during experimental S. brasiliensis infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo Augusto Kazuo Ikeda
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Environmental, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of São Paulo, Diadema, Brazil
| | | | - Grasielle Pereira Jannuzzi
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - André Cronemberger-Andrade
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Environmental, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of São Paulo, Diadema, Brazil
| | - Ana Cláudia Trocoli Torrecilhas
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Environmental, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of São Paulo, Diadema, Brazil
| | - Nilmar Silvio Moretti
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Federal University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Julia Pinheiro Chagas da Cunha
- Special Laboratory of Cell Cycle, Center of Toxins, Immune Response and Cell Signaling, Butantan Institute, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sandro Rogério de Almeida
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Karen Spadari Ferreira
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Institute of Environmental, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of São Paulo, Diadema, Brazil
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Abstract
The comprehension of fungal biology is important for several reasons. Besides being used in biotechnological processes and in the food industry, fungi are also important animal and vegetal pathogens. Fungal diseases in humans have a great importance worldwide, and understanding fungal biology is crucial for treatment and prevention of these diseases, especially because of emerging antifungal resistance that poses great epidemiological risks. Communication through extracellular vesicles is a ubiquitous mechanism of molecule transfer between cells and is used to transport proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, and other biologically active molecules. Several pathogens can produce and transfer extracellular vesicles, and the importance of this pathway in fungal communication with hosts and between fungal cells has been described for several species in the last years, as shown for Saccharomyces cereviseae, Cryptococcus neoformans, Candida albicans, Paracoccidioides braziliensis, Sporothrix schenckii, Candida parapsilosis, Malassezia sympodialis, Histoplasma capsulatum, among others. In this chapter, we review the role of extracellular vesicles in fungal communication, interaction with hosts and with the environment, and also highlighting important molecules found in fungal EVs.
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